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Physics Facts for Kids

Various examples of physical phenomena

Physics is a branch of science. It studies matter, and all forces and their effects. Modern physics connects ideas about the four laws of symmetry and conservation of energy, momentum, charge, and parity. The word physics comes from the Greek word ἡ φύσις, meaning «nature». Another opinion is «Physical science… relates to the order of nature or, in other words, to the regular succession of events».

One of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves.

History
- Ancient astronomy
- Natural philosophy
- Physics in the medieval Islamic world
- Classical physics
- Modern physics
Definition
Physics and mathematics
Advanced knowledge
- General description
- Breadth and goals of physics
- Physics uses the scientific method
- Physics is quantitative
- Fields of physics
- Approaches in physics
Physicists
- Prominent theoretical physicists
Related pages
Images for kids

History

Ancient Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the ceiling of Senemut’s tomb from the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.

Max Planck (1858–1947), the originator of the theory of quantum mechanics

Ancient astronomy

Astronomy is the oldest natural science. The Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and Indus Valley Civilization all understood how the things in the sky moved since before 3000 BC.

A lot of astronomy comes from Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Ancient Egypt, and Ancient Greece. Most names for constellations came from Greek astronomers.

Natural philosophy

Natural philosophy started in Greece around 650 BC when some philosophers rejected superstition and decided things had to happen for a reason. Leucippus and his student Democritus suggested the idea of the atom around this period.

Physics in the medieval Islamic world

Islamic scholars continued to study Aristotelian physics during the Islamic Golden Age. They also developed an early form of the scientific method.

Scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna worked a lot on optics and vision. In The Book of Optics, Ibn Al-Haitham rejects previous Greek ideas and comes up with a new theory about vision.

Classical physics

Physics became a separate field of study after the scientific revolution.

Galileo’s experiments helped to create classical physics. And although he did not invent the telescope, he noticed that the stars and planets were not perfect. He also investigated gravity.

Isaac Newton used Galileo’s ideas to put together his three laws of motion.

Modern physics

As research progressed, scientists found things that classical mechanics did not explain.

Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light varied, but experiments showed the speed of light stayed the same. This was predicted by Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity. Einstein predicted that the speed of electromagnetic radiation through empty space would always be the same. His view of space-time replaced the ancient idea that space and time were quite separate things.

Max Planck came up with quantum mechanics to explain why metal releases electrons when you shine a light at it, and why matter emits radiation. Quantum mechanics applies for very small things like the electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up an atom. People like Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, and Paul Dirac continued to work on quantum mechanics and eventually we got the Standard Model.

Definition

Physics is the study of energy and matter in space and time and how they are related to each other. Physicists assume the existence of mass, length, time and electric current and then define (give the meaning of) all other physical quantities in terms of these basic units. Mass, length, time, and electric current are never defined but the standard units used to measure them are always defined. In the International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Système International), the kilogram is the basic unit of mass, the metre is the basic unit of length, the second is the basic unit of time, and the ampere is the basic unit of electric current.

In addition to these four units, there are three other ones: the mole, which is the unit of the quantity of matter, the candela which measures the luminous intensity (the power of lighting) and the kelvin, the unit of temperature.

Physics studies how things move, and the forces that make them move. For example, velocity and acceleration are used by physics to show how things move. Also, physicists study the forces of gravity, electricity, magnetism and the forces that hold things together.

Physics studies very large things, and very small things. For instance, physicists can study stars, planets and galaxies but could also study small pieces of matter, such as atoms and electrons.They may also study sound, light and other waves. As well as that, they could examine energy, heat and radioactivity, and even space and time. Physics not only helps people understand how objects move, but how they change form, how they make noise, how hot or cold they will be, and what they are made of at the smallest level.

Physics and mathematics

Physics is a quantitative science because it is based on measuring with numbers. Mathematics is used in physics to make models that try to guess what will happen in nature. The guesses are compared to the way the real world works. Physicists are always working to make their models of the world better.

Advanced knowledge

General description

Physics is the science of matter and how matter interacts. Matter is any physical material in the universe. Everything is made of matter. Physics is used to describe the physical universe around us, and to predict how it will behave. Physics is the science concerned with the discovery and characterization of the universal laws which govern matter, movement and forces, and space and time, and other features of the natural world.

Breadth and goals of physics

The sweep of physics is broad, from the smallest components of matter and the forces that hold it together, to galaxies and even larger things. There are only four forces that appear to operate over this whole range. However, even these four forces (gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force associated with radioactivity, and the strong force which holds protons and neutrons in an atom together) are believed to be different parts of a single force.

Physics is mainly focused on the goal of making ever simpler, more general, and more accurate rules that define the character and behavior of matter and space itself. One of the major goals of physics is making theories that apply to everything in the universe. In other words, physics can be viewed as the study of those universal laws which define, at the most basic level possible, the behavior of the physical universe.

Physics uses the scientific method

Physics uses the scientific method. That is, data from experiments and observations are collected. Theories which attempt to explain these data are produced. Physics uses these theories to not only describe physical phenomena, but to model physical systems and predict how these physical systems will behave. Physicists then compare these predictions to observations or experimental evidence to show whether the theory is right or wrong.

The theories that are well supported by data and are especially simple and general are sometimes called scientific laws. Of course, all theories, including those known as laws, can be replaced by more accurate and more general laws, when a disagreement with data is found.

Physics is quantitative

Physics is more quantitative than most other sciences. That is, many of the observations in physics may be represented in the form of numerical measurements. Most of the theories in physics use mathematics to express their principles. Most of the predictions from these theories are numerical. This is because of the areas which physics has addressed work better with quantitative approaches than other areas. Sciences also tend to become more quantitative with time as they become more highly developed, and physics is one of the oldest sciences.

Fields of physics

Classical physics normally includes the fields of mechanics, optics, electricity, magnetism, acoustics and thermodynamics. Modern physics is a term normally used to cover fields which rely on quantum theory, including quantum mechanics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, particle physics and condensed matter physics, as well as the more modern fields of general and special relativity. Although this difference can be found in older writings, it is of little new interest as quantum effects are now understood to be of importance even in fields that before were called classical.

Approaches in physics

There are many approaches to studying physics, and many different kinds of activities in physics. There are two main types of activities in physics; the collection of data and the development of theories.

The data in some subfields of physics is amenable to experiment. For example, condensed matter physics and nuclear physics benefit from the ability to perform experiments. Experimental physics focuses mainly on an empirical approach. Sometimes experiments are done to explore nature, and in other cases experiments are performed to produce data to compare with the predictions of theories.

Some other fields in physics like astrophysics and geophysics are mostly observational sciences because most of their data has to be collected passively instead of through experimentation. However, observational programs in these fields use many of the same tools and technology that are used in the experimental subfields of physics.

Theoretical physics often uses quantitative approaches to develop the theories that attempt to explain the data. In this way, theoretical physics often use tools from mathematics. Theoretical physics often can involve creating quantitative predictions of physical theories, and comparing these predictions quantitatively with data. Theoretical physics sometimes creates models of physical systems before data is available to test and support these models. There are many important uses of physics like measuring houses or any measure. Also, it can be used to measure falling objects like planes.

These two main activities in physics, data collection and theory production and testing, use many different skills. This has led to a lot of specialization in physics, and the introduction, development and use of tools from other fields. For example, theoretical physicists use mathematics and numerical analysis and statistics and probability and computer software in their work. Experimental physicists develop instruments and techniques for collecting data, using engineering and computer technology and many other fields of technology. Often the tools from these other areas are not quite appropriate for the needs of physics, and need to be changed or more advanced versions have to be made.

Physicists

Prominent theoretical physicists

Famous theoretical physicists include

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695)
Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813)
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827)
Joseph Fourier (1768–1830)
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796–1842)
William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865)
Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888)
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
J. Willard Gibbs (1839–1903)
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)
Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853–1928)
Henri Poincaré (1854–1912)
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)
Max Planck (1858–1947)
Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
Milutin Milanković (1879–1958)
Emmy Noether (1882–1935)
Max Born (1882–1970)
Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961)
Louis de Broglie (1892–1987)
Satyendra Nath Bose (1894–1974)
Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958)
Enrico Fermi (1901–1954)
Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976)
Paul Dirac (1902–1984)
Eugene Wigner (1902–1995)
Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967)
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga (1906–1979)
Hideki Yukawa (1907–1981)
John Bardeen (1908–1991)
Lev Landau (1908–1967)
Anatoly Vlasov (1908–1975)
Nikolay Bogolyubov (1909–1992)
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995)
John Archibald Wheeler (1911–2008)
Richard Feynman (1918–1988)
Julian Schwinger (1918–1994)
Feza Gürsey (1921–1992)
Chen Ning Yang (1922– )
Freeman Dyson (1923– )
Gunnar Källén (1926–1968)
Abdus Salam (1926–1996)
Murray Gell-Mann (1929– )
Riazuddin (1930– )
Roger Penrose (1931– )
George Sudarshan (1931– )
Sheldon Glashow (1932– )
Tom W. B. Kibble (1932– )
Steven Weinberg (1933– )
Gerald Guralnik (1936–)
Sidney Coleman (1937–2007)
C. R. Hagen (1937–)
Ratko Janev (1939– )
Leonard Susskind (1940– )
Michael Berry (1941– )
Bertrand Halperin (1941–)
Stephen Hawking (1942– )
Alexander Polyakov (1945–)
Gerardus ‘t Hooft (1946– )
Jacob Bekenstein (1947–)
Robert Laughlin (1950–)

Astronomy
Energy
Matter
Time

Images for kids

Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965 — c. 1040), the pioneer of optics
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), whose laws of motion and universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), whose work on the photoelectric effect and the theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th century physics
Classical physics implemented in an acoustic engineering model of sound reflecting from an acoustic diffuser
Solvay Conference of 1927, with prominent physicists such as Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Hendrik Lorentz, Niels Bohr, Marie Curie, Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Dirac
Mathematics and ontology are used in physics. Physics is used in chemistry and cosmology.
The distinction between mathematics and physics is clear-cut, but not always obvious, especially in mathematical physics.
Archimedes’ screw, a simple machine for lifting
The application of physical laws in lifting liquids
The astronaut and Earth are both in free-fall
Lightning is an electric current
Physics involves modeling the natural world with theory, usually quantitative. Here, the path of a particle is modeled with the mathematics of calculus to explain its behavior: the purview of the branch of physics known as mechanics.
A simulated event in the CMS detector of the Large Hadron Collider, featuring a possible appearance of the Higgs boson.
Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the Bose–Einstein condensate
The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field
Feynman diagram signed by R. P. Feynman.
A typical event described by physics: a magnet levitating above a superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect.

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Physics Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.

Mathematics Facts for Kids

Kids Encyclopedia Facts

A page from al-Khwārizmī’s Algebra

Mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes and patterns. The word comes from the Greek word «μάθημα» (máthema), meaning «science, knowledge, or learning», and is sometimes shortened to maths (in England, Australia, Ireland, and New Zealand) or math (in the United States and Canada). The short words are often used for arithmetic, geometry or simple algebra by students and their schools.

Mathematics includes the study of:

Numbers: how things can be counted.
Structure: how things are organized. This subfield is usually called algebra.
Place: where things are and their arrangement. This subfield is usually called geometry.
Change: how things become different. This subfield is usually called analysis.

Mathematics is useful for solving problems that occur in the real world, so many people besides mathematicians study and use mathematics. Today, some mathematics is needed in many jobs. People working in business, science, engineering, and construction need some knowledge of mathematics.

Problem-solving in mathematics
Areas of study in mathematics
- Number
- Structure
- Shape
- Change
- Applied mathematics
Famous theorems
Foundations and methods
- History and the world of mathematicians
Awards in mathematics
Mathematical tools
Related pages
Images for kids

Problem-solving in mathematics

Mathematics solves problems by using logic. One of the main tools of logic used by mathematicians is deduction. Deduction is a special way of thinking to discover and prove new truths using old truths. To a mathematician, the reason something is true (called a proof) is just as important as the fact that it is true, and this reason is often found using deduction. Using deduction is what makes mathematics thinking different from other kinds of scientific thinking, which might rely on experiments or on interviews.

Logic and reasoning are used by mathematicians to create general rules, which are an important part of mathematics. These rules leave out information that is not important so that a single rule can cover many situations. By finding general rules, mathematics solves many problems at the same time as these rules can be used on other problems. These rules can be called theorems (if they have been proved) or conjectures (if it is not known if they are true yet). Most mathematicians use non-logical and creative reasoning in order to find a logical proof.

Sometimes, mathematics finds and studies rules or ideas that we don’t understand yet. Often in mathematics, ideas and rules are chosen because they are considered simple or neat. On the other hand, sometimes these ideas and rules are found in the real world after they are studied in mathematics; this has happened many times in the past. In general, studying the rules and ideas of mathematics can help us understand the world better. Some examples of math problems are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, calculus, fractions and decimals. Algebra problems are solved by evaluating certain variables. A calculator answers every math problem in the four basic arithmetic operations.

Areas of study in mathematics

Number

Mathematics includes the study of numbers and quantities.It is a branch of science the deals with logic of shape,quantity and arrangement. Most of the areas listed below are studied in many different fields of mathematics, including set theory and mathematical logic. The study of number theory usually focuses more on the structure and behavior of the integers rather than on the actual foundations of numbers themselves, and so is not listed in this given subsection.


Natural numbers	Integers	Rational numbers	Real numbers	Complex numbers

Ordinal numbers	Cardinal numbers	Arithmetic operations	Arithmetic relations	Functions, see also special functions

Structure

Many areas of mathematics study the structure that an object has. Most of these areas are part of the study of algebra.


Number theory	Abstract algebra	Linear algebra	Order theory	Graph theory

Shape

Some areas of mathematics study the shapes of things. Most of these areas are part of the study of geometry.


Topology	Geometry	Trigonometry	Differential geometry	Fractal geometry

Change

Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of analysis.


Calculus	Vector calculus	Analysis

Differential equations	Dynamical systems	Chaos theory

Applied mathematics

Applied mathematics uses mathematics to solve problems of other areas such as engineering, physics, and computing.

Numerical analysis – Optimization – Probability theory – Statistics – Mathematical finance – Game theory – Mathematical physics – Fluid dynamics — computational algorithms

Famous theorems

These theorems have interested mathematicians and people who are not mathematicians.

Pythagorean theorem – Fermat’s last theorem – Goldbach’s conjecture – Twin Prime Conjecture – Gödel’s incompleteness theorems – Poincaré conjecture – Cantor’s diagonal argument – Four color theorem – Zorn’s lemma – Euler’s Identity – Church-Turing thesis

These are theorems and conjectures that have greatly changed mathematics.

Riemann hypothesis – Continuum hypothesis – P Versus NP – Pythagorean theorem – Central limit theorem – Fundamental theorem of calculus – Fundamental theorem of algebra – Fundamental theorem of arithmetic – Fundamental theorem of projective geometry – classification theorems of surfaces – Gauss-Bonnet theorem – Fermat’s last theorem — Kantorovich theorem

Foundations and methods

Progress in understanding the nature of mathematics also influences the way mathematicians study their subject.

Philosophy of Mathematics – Mathematical intuitionism – Mathematical constructivism – Foundations of mathematics – Set theory – Symbolic logic – Model theory – Category theory – Logic – Reverse Mathematics – Table of mathematical symbols

History and the world of mathematicians

Mathematics in history, and the history of mathematics.

History of mathematics – Timeline of mathematics – Mathematicians – Fields medal – Abel Prize – Millennium Prize Problems (Clay Math Prize) – International Mathematical Union – Mathematics competitions – Lateral thinking – Mathematics and gender

Awards in mathematics

There is no Nobel prize in mathematics. Mathematicians can receive the Abel prize and the Fields Medal for important works.

The Clay Mathematics Institute has said it will give one million dollars to anyone who solves one of the Millennium Prize Problems.

Mathematical tools

There are many tools that are used to do mathematics or to find answers to mathematics problems.

Older tools

Abacus
Napier’s bones, slide rule
Ruler and Compass
Mental calculation

Newer tools

Calculators and computers
Programming languages
Computer algebra systems (listing)
Internet shorthand notation
statistics software (for example SPSS)
SAS programming language
R (programming language)

List of mathematicians
Timeline of women in mathematics
American Mathematical Society
Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
- EASIAM
Mathematics Genealogy Project
Mathematics Subject Classification

Images for kids

3rd century BC Greek mathematician Euclid holding calipers, as imagined by Raphael in this detail from The School of Athens (1509–1511)
This is the Ulam spiral, which illustrates the distribution of prime numbers. The dark diagonal lines in the spiral hint at the hypothesized approximate independence between being prime and being a value of a quadratic polynomial, a conjecture now known as Hardy and Littlewood’s Conjecture F.
The Babylonian mathematical tablet Plimpton 322, dated to 1800 BC
The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD
Leonardo Fibonacci, the Italian mathematician who introduced the Hindu–Arabic numeral system invented between the 1st and 4th centuries by Indian mathematicians, to the Western World.
Leonhard Euler created and popularized much of the mathematical notation used today.
Carl Friedrich Gauss, known as the prince of mathematicians
Euler’s identity, which Richard Feynman once called «the most remarkable formula in mathematics»
The front side of the Fields Medal

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Mathematics Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.

Astronomy Facts for Kids

18th century map of the sky

Astronomy is a natural science. It is the study of everything outside the atmosphere of Earth.

It studies celestial objects (such as stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae) and processes (such as supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation). This includes the physics, chemistry of those objects and processes.

A related subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with studying the Universe as a whole, and the way the universe changed over time.

The word astronomy comes from the Greek words astron which means star and nomos which means law. A person who studies astronomy is called an astronomer.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Ancient people used the positions of the stars to navigate, and to find when was the best time to plant crops. Astronomy is very similar to astrophysics. Since the 20th century there have been two main types of astronomy, observational and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy uses telescopes and cameras to observe or look at stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Theoretical astronomy uses maths and computer models to predict what should happen. The two often work together, the theoretical predicts what should happen and the observational shows whether the prediction works.

Astronomy is not the same as astrology, the belief that the patterns the stars and the planets may affect human lives.

History of astronomy
- Ancient
- Renaissance to modern era
- Modern era
Discoveries
- Bodies
  - Solar
  - Galactic
  - Cosmic
- Phenomena
Methods
- Instruments
- Techniques
  - Integration
  - Aperture synthesis
  - Adaptive optics
- Fields by body
  - Solar astronomy
  - Planetary astronomy
  - Galactic astronomy
- Fields by electromagnetic spectrum
  - Radio astronomy
  - Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
- Other fields
  - Gravitational wave astronomy
Related pages
Images for kids

History of astronomy

Main page: History of astronomy

Ancient

Early astronomers used only their eyes to look at the stars. They used maps of the constellations and stars for religious reasons and also to work out the time of year. Early civilisations such as the Maya people and the Ancient Egyptians built simple observatories and drew maps of the stars positions. They also began to think about the place of Earth in the universe. For a long time people thought Earth was the center of the universe, and that the planets, the stars and the sun went around it. This is known as the geocentric model of the Universe.

Ancient Greeks tried to explain the motions of the sun and stars by taking measurements. A mathematician named Eratosthenes was the first who measured the size of the Earth and proved that the Earth is a sphere. A theory by another mathematician named Aristarchus was, that the sun is in the center and the Earth is moving around it. This is known as the Heliocentric model. Only a small group of people thought it was right. The rest continued to believe in the geocentric model.

Most of the names of constellations and stars that we have, come from Greeks of that time.

Arabic astronomers made many advancements during the Middle Ages including improved star maps and ways to estimate the size of the Earth.

Renaissance to modern era

Drawings of the Moon by Galileo. His drawings were more detailed than anyone before him because he used a telescope to look at the Moon.

During the renaissance a priest named Nicolaus Copernicus thought, from looking at the way the planets moved, that the Earth was not the center of everything. Based on previous works, he said that the Earth was a planet and all the planets moved around the sun. This heliocentrism was an old idea. A physicist called Galileo Galilei built his own telescopes, and used them to look more closely at the stars and planets for the first time. He agreed with Copernicus. Their ideas were also improved by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton who invented the theory of gravity. At this time the Catholic Church decided that Galileo was wrong. He had to spend the rest of his life under house arrest.

After Galileo, people made better telescopes and used them to see farther objects such as the planets Uranus and Neptune. They also saw how stars were similar to our Sun, but in a range of colours and sizes. They also saw thousands of other faraway objects such as galaxies and nebulae.

Modern era

Amateur astronomers can build their own equipment, and can hold star parties and gatherings, such as Stellafane.

The 20th century saw important changes in astronomy.

In 1931, Karl Jansky discovered radio emission from outside the Earth when trying to isolate a source of noise in radio communications, marking the birth of radio astronomy and the first attempts at using another part of the electromagnetic spectrum to observe the sky. Those parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that the atmosphere did not block were now opened up to astronomy, allowing more discoveries to be made.

The opening of this new window on the Universe saw the discovery of entirely new things, for example pulsars, which sent regular pulses of radio waves out into space. The waves were first thought to be alien in origin because the pulses were so regular that it implied an artificial source.

The period after World War 2 saw more observatories where large and accurate telescopes are built and operated at good observing sites, normally by governments. For example, Bernard Lovell began radio astronomy at Jodrell Bank using leftover military radar equipment. By 1957, the site had the largest steerable radio telescope in the world. Similarly, the end of the 1960s saw the start of the building of dedicated observatories at Mauna Kea in Hawaii, a good site for visible and infra-red telescopes thanks to its high altitude and clear skies. Mauna Kea would eventually come to host very large and very accurate telescopes like the Keck Observatory with its 10-meter mirror.

The next great revolution in astronomy was thanks to the birth of rocketry. This allowed telescopes to be placed in space on satellites.

Satellite-based telescopes opened up the Universe to human eyes. Turbulence in the Earth’s atmosphere blurs images taken by ground-based telescopes, an effect known as seeing. It is this effect that makes stars «twinkle» in the sky. As a result, the pictures taken by satellite telescopes in visible light (for example, by the Hubble Space Telescope) are much clearer than Earth-based telescopes, even though Earth-based telescopes are very large.

Space telescopes gave access, for the first time in history, to the entire electromagnetic spectrum including rays that had been blocked by the atmosphere. The X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light and parts of the infra-red spectrum were all opened to astronomy as observing telescopes were launched. As with other parts of the spectrum, new discoveries were made.

From 1970s satellites were launched to be replaced with more accurate and better satellites, causing the sky to be mapped in nearly all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Discoveries

A star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, an irregular galaxy.

A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant

Discoveries broadly come in two types: bodies and phenomena. Bodies are things in the Universe, whether it is a planet like our Earth or a galaxy like our Milky Way. Phenomena are events and happenings in the Universe.

Bodies

For convenience, this section has been divided by where these astronomical bodies may be found: those found around stars are solar bodies, those inside galaxies are galactic bodies and everything else larger are cosmic bodies.

Solar

Planets
Asteroids
Comets

Galactic

Stars

Diffuse Objects:

Nebulas
Clusters

Compact Stars:

White dwarves
Neutron stars
Black holes

Cosmic

Galaxies
Galaxy clusters
Superclusters

Phenomena

Burst events are those where there is a sudden change in the heavens that disappears quickly. These are called bursts because they are normally associated with large explosions producing a «burst» of energy. They include:

Supernovas
Novas

Periodic events are those that happen regularly in a repetitive way. The name periodic comes from period, which is the length of time required for a wave to complete one cycle. Periodic phenomena include:

Pulsars
Variable stars

Noise phenomena tend to relate to things that happened a long time ago. The signal from these events bounce around the Universe until it seems to come from everywhere and varies little in intensity. In this way, it resembles «noise», the background signal that pervades every instrument used for astronomy. The most common example of noise is static seen on analogue televisions. The principal astronomical example is: Cosmic background radiation.

Methods

Solar observatory Lomnický štít (Slovakia) built in 1962.

The Subaru Telescope (left) and Keck Observatory (center) on Mauna Kea, both examples of an observatory that operates at near-infrared and visible wavelengths. The NASA Infrared Telescope Facility (right) is an example of a telescope that operates only at near-infrared wavelengths.

Instruments

Telescopes are the main tool of observing. They take all the light in a big area and put in into a small area. This is like making your eyes very big and powerful. Astronomers use telescopes to look at things that are far away and dim. Telescopes make objects look bigger, closer, brighter.
Spectrometers study the different wavelengths of light. This shows what something is made of.
Many telescopes are in satellites. They are space observatories.

Techniques

There are way astronomers can get better pictures of the heavens. Light from a distant source reaches a sensor and gets measured, normally by a human eye or a camera. For very dim sources, there may not be enough light particles coming from the source for it to be seen. One technique that astronomers have for making it visible is using integration, (which is like longer exposures in photography).

Integration

Astronomical sources do not move much: only the rotation and movement of the Earth causes them to move across the heavens. As light particles reach the camera over time, they hit the same place making it brighter and more visible than the background, until it can be seen.

Telescopes at most observatories (and satellite instruments) can normally track a source as it moves across the heavens, making the star appear still to the telescope and allowing longer exposures. Also, images can be taken on different nights so exposures span hours, days or even months. In the digital era, digitised pictures of the sky can be added together by computer, which overlays the images after correcting for movement.

Aperture synthesis

With radio telescopes smaller telescopes can be combined together to create a big one, which works like one as big as the distance between the two smaller telescopes.

Adaptive optics

Adaptive optics means changing the shape of the mirror or lens while looking at something, to see it better.

Fields by body

Solar astronomy

Main page: Sun

Solar astronomy is the study of the Sun. The Sun is the closest star to Earth at around 92 million (92,000,000) miles away. It is the easiest to observe in detail. Observing the Sun can help us understand how other stars work and are formed. Changes in the Sun can affect the weather and climate on Earth. A stream of charged particles called the Solar wind is constantly sent off from the Sun. The Solar Wind hitting the Earth’s magnetic field causes the northern lights. Studying the Sun helped people understand how nuclear fusion works.

Planetary astronomy

Planetary Astronomy is the study of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets and asteroids as well as other small objects that orbit stars. The planets of our own Solar System have been studied in depth by many visiting spacecraft such as Cassini-Huygens (Saturn) and the Voyager 1 and 2.

Galactic astronomy

Galactic Astronomy is the study of distant galaxies. Studying distant galaxies is the best way of learning about our own galaxy, as the gases and stars in our own galaxy make it difficult to observe. Galactic Astronomers attempt to understand the structure of galaxies and how they are formed through the use of different types of telescopes and computer simulations.

Fields by electromagnetic spectrum

Radio astronomy

Radio telescope

Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)

Hydrodynamics is used in astronomy for mathematically modelling how gases behave. Strong magnetic fields found around many bodies can drastically change how these gases behave, affecting things from star formation to the flows of gases around compact stars. This makes MHD an important and useful tool in astronomy.

Other fields

Gravitational wave astronomy

Gravitational wave astronomy is the study of the Universe in the gravitational wave spectrum. So far, all astronomy that has been done has used the electromagnetic spectrum. Gravitational Waves are ripples in spacetime emitted by very dense objects changing shape, which include white dwarves, neutron stars and black holes. Because no one has been able to detect gravitational waves directly, the impact of Gravitational Wave Astronomy has been very limited.

Star cluster Pismis 24 with a nebula

Solar system
Planet
Satellite (natural) (word for moons of other planets)
Comet
Meteor
Asteroid
Star
Black hole
Galaxy
Universe
List of comets

Images for kids

The Paranal Observatory of European Southern Observatory is shooting a laser guide star to the Galactic Center
Astronomical Observatory, New South Wales, Australia 1873
19th-century Quito Astronomical Observatory is located 12 minutes south of the Equator in Quito, Ecuador.
A celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit
The Suryaprajnaptisūtra, a 6th-century BC astronomy text of Jains at The Schoyen Collection, London. Above: its manuscript from c. 1500 AD.
Greek equatorial sundial, Alexandria on the Oxus, present-day Afghanistan 3rd–2nd century BC
An astronomical chart from an early scientific manuscript, c. 1000
The Very Large Array in New Mexico, an example of a radio telescope
ALMA Observatory is one of the highest observatory sites on Earth. Atacama, Chile.
X-ray jet made from a supermassive black hole found by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory, made visible by light from the early Universe
Astrophysics applies physics and chemistry to understand the measurements made by astronomy. Representation of the Observable Universe that includes images from Hubble and other telescopes.
Hubble Extreme Deep Field
This image shows several blue, loop-shaped objects that are multiple images of the same galaxy, duplicated by the gravitational lens effect of the cluster of yellow galaxies near the middle of the photograph. The lens is produced by the cluster’s gravitational field that bends light to magnify and distort the image of a more distant object.
Mz 3, often referred to as the Ant planetary nebula. Ejecting gas from the dying central star shows symmetrical patterns unlike the chaotic patterns of ordinary explosions.
An ultraviolet image of the Sun’s active photosphere as viewed by the TRACE space telescope. NASA photo
The black spot at the top is a dust devil climbing a crater wall on Mars. This moving, swirling column of Martian atmosphere (comparable to a terrestrial tornado) created the long, dark streak.

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Astronomy Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.

Economics Facts for Kids

Kids Encyclopedia Facts

Economists study how people make decisions, such as those that occur in a market.

São Paulo’s stock exchange. Buyers and sellers are not present themselves. They use intermediaries and technology to trade. Most ideas about buying and selling are the same as in a «real» market though.

Economics is the social science which studies economic activity: how people make choices to get what they want. It has been defined as «the study of scarcity and choice» and is basically about individual choice. It also studies what affects the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in an economy.

Investment and income relate to economics. The models used in economics today were mostly started in the 19th century. People took ideas from the field of political economy because they wanted to use an empirical approach similar to the one used in the natural sciences.

Subjects and objects in economics
General economic rules
History
Branches of economics
Famous economists
Related pages
Images for kids

Subjects and objects in economics

The subjects (actors) in economic study are households, business companies, the government (the state), and foreign countries. Households offer their «factors of production» to companies. This includes work, land, capital (machines, buildings) and information. They get income which they use to buy or ‘consume’ goods.

Business companies produce and sell goods and services and buy factors of production from households and from other companies.

The state or public sector includes institutions and organisations. The state takes some of the earnings from the business companies and households, and uses it to pay for «public goods» like streets or education, to be available for everyone. The last subject is foreign countries. This includes all households, business companies and state institutions, which are not based in one’s own country. They demand and supply goods from abroad.

The objects (things acted upon) in economic study are consumer goods, capital goods, and factors of production. Consumer goods are classified as «usage goods» (for example, gasoline or toilet paper), as «purpose goods» (for example, a house or bicycle), and as «services» (for example, the work of a doctor or cleaning lady). Capital goods are goods which are necessary for producing other goods. Examples of these are buildings, equipment, and machines. Factors of production are work, ground, capital, information, and environment.

General economic rules

All people have to decide between their options.
The cost of goods is what a person gives up for the goods.
When a person gives up something (like money) to get a good, they also give up other things that they could have gotten instead. This means that the true cost of something is what you give up to get it. This includes money, and the economic benefits («utility») that you didn’t get because you can no longer buy something else.This is called opportunity cost.
People react to encouragements («incentives»). Making an option more attractive will make more people choose it.
Trade can make everyone better off.
Markets are usually good for the organisation of economic life. In the free market, goods will be shared by people and companies making small decisions. The “invisible hand” of the market (Adam Smith) states that if everyone tries to get what they want, everyone will be as well-off as they could possibly be.
Sometimes prices do not fully show the cost or benefit to society. For example, air pollution is bad for society, and education is good for society. The government can put a tax (or do something to reduce sales) on items that are bad for society. It can also support (like giving money for) items that are good for society.
The living standard of a country depends on the skills to produce services and goods. Productivity is the amount of the produced goods divided by total working hours.
When there is an increase in the total money supply, or when the cost to produce things rises, prices go up. This is called inflation.

History

18th century analysis of wealth
- Physiocracy
classical economics
Marxist economics
Austrian economics
neoclassical economics
welfare economics

Economists are strongly influenced by the times they live in. For example, Karl Marx lived in a time where workers’ conditions were very poor, and John Maynard Keynes lived through the Great Depression of the 1930s. Today’s economists can look back and understand why they made their judgments, and try to make better ones.

Branches of economics

The two main branches of economics are microeconomics and macroeconomics.

Macroeconomics is about the economy in general. For example, if a country’s wealth goes up or if millions of people become unemployed, those are things that macroeconomists study. Microeconomics is about smaller and more specific things such as how families and households spend their money or how a business operates.

There are a number of other branches of economics:

Behavioral economics
Business economics
Constitutional economics
development economics
ecological economics
economic geography
environmental economics
energy economics
financial economics
industrial economics
information economics
international economics
labor economics
managerial economics
mathematical economics or econometrics
resource economics
urban economics
public economics
descriptive, theoretical and policy economics
monetary economics

Famous economists

Famous economists in history include:

Adam Smith (considered to be the father of economics; he supported free markets).
Thomas Malthus (he wrote about how a high population can affect the economy badly).
Karl Marx (he wrote a book called The Communist Manifesto; he supported communism).
John Maynard Keynes (he created a popular economic theory called Keynesian economics).
Milton Friedman (he wrote a lot about monetarism and the money supply).

Famous economists of the 19th and 20th century include Friedrich August von Hayek, Wassily Leontief, N. Gregory Mankiw, Carl Menger, and Léon Walras.

Political economy
Constitutional economics

Images for kids

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Economics Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.

Lincolnshire Facts for Kids

For other places with the same name, see Lincolnshire (disambiguation).

«Lincs» redirects here. For other uses, see Lincs (disambiguation).

Lincolnshire (abbreviated Lincs.) is a county in the East Midlands of England, with a long coastline on the North Sea to the east. It borders Norfolk to the south-east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south-west, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire to the west, South Yorkshire to the north-west, and the East Riding of Yorkshire to the north. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards (19 m), England’s shortest county boundary. The county town is the city of Lincoln, where the county council is based.

The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire consists of the non-metropolitan county of Lincolnshire and the area covered by the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire. Part of the ceremonial county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England, and most is in the East Midlands region. The county is the second-largest of the English ceremonial counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use. The county is fourth-largest of the two-tier counties, as the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire are not included.

The county has several geographical sub-regions, including the rolling chalk hills of the Lincolnshire Wolds, the Lincolnshire Fens (south-east Lincolnshire), the Carrs (similar to the Fens but in north Lincolnshire), the industrial Humber Estuary and North Sea coast around Grimsby and Scunthorpe, and in the south-west of the county, the Kesteven Uplands, rolling limestone hills in the district of South Kesteven.

History
Geography
Elections
- Westminster Parliamentary constituencies
- Lincolnshire County Council
  - 2009 election
  - 2013 election
Referendums
- 1975 European Communities membership
- 2011 Alternative Vote
- 2016 European Union membership
Towns and villages
Coastal tourism
Culture
- People
- Notable people
- Language
- Music
- Food
- Events
- Sport
- Symbols
Press
Military
Places of interest
Economy
- Agriculture
Images for kids

History

Main page: History of Lincolnshire

Part of ‘The Bailgate’. The centre of the uphill area of Lincoln.

Lincolnshire derived from the merging of the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey with that controlled by the Danelaw borough of Stamford. For some time the entire county was called «Lindsey», and it is recorded as such in the 11th-century Domesday Book. Later, the name Lindsey was applied to the northern core, around Lincoln, and this emerged as one of the three Parts of Lincolnshire, along with the Parts of Holland in the south-east and the Parts of Kesteven in the south-west, which each had separate Quarter Sessions as their county administrations.

In 1888 when county councils were set up, Lindsey, Holland and Kesteven each received separate ones. These survived until 1974, when Holland, Kesteven, and most of Lindsey were unified into Lincolnshire. The northern part of Lindsey, including Scunthorpe Municipal Borough and Grimsby County Borough, was incorporated into the newly formed non-metropolitan county of Humberside, along with most of the East Riding of Yorkshire.

County and County Borough areas pre 1965

A local government reform in 1996 abolished Humberside, and the land south of the Humber was allocated to the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire. These two areas became part of Lincolnshire for ceremonial purposes such as the Lord-Lieutenancy, but are not covered by the Lincolnshire police and are in the Yorkshire and the Humber region.

The remaining districts of Lincolnshire are Boston, East Lindsey, Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Holland, South Kesteven, and West Lindsey. They are part of the East Midlands region.

The area was shaken by the 27 February 2008 Lincolnshire earthquake, reaching between 4.7 and 5.3 on the Richter magnitude scale; it was one of the largest earthquakes to affect Britain in recent years.

Lincolnshire is home to Woolsthorpe Manor, birthplace and home of Sir Isaac Newton. He attended The King’s School, Grantham and its library has preserved his signature, applied to a window sill when he was a teenager.

Belton House
Boston Stump
Gainsborough Old Hall
Harlaxton Manor
Normanby Hall
Tattershall Castle
Thornton Abbey

Geography

Lincolnshire’s geography is fairly varied, but consists of several distinct areas:

Lincolnshire Wolds — area of rolling hills in the North East of the county designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty
The Fens — dominating the South East quarter of the county
The Marshes — running along the coast of the county
The Lincoln Edge/Cliff — limestone escarpment running north-south along the Western half of the county

Elections

Westminster Parliamentary constituencies

General Election 2015 : Lincolnshire
Conservative	Labour	UKIP	Liberal Democrats	Green	Others	Turnout
248,273 +12,771	124,844 +2,210	98,529 +73,511	21,341 –78,254	10,689 +9,569	10,049 –16,955	513,725 +5,884

Overall Number of seats as of 2015
Conservative	Labour	Liberal Democrats	UKIP	Green
9	2	0	0	0

Lincolnshire’s non-metropolitan county Parliamentary constituency results map from the 2015 UK General Election with all seven constituencies held by the Conservative Party

Humberside Parliamentary constituency results map from the 2015 UK General Election showing results from both North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire with the Conservatives holding two seats and Labour also holding two seats

The Conservative Party won nine seats in the 2010 United Kingdom general election in Lincolnshire, considerably increasing their vote share at the expense of Labour, taking Gillian Merron’s Lincoln constituency.

Parliamentary Constituencies
Constituency	District	MP	Party
Boston and Skegness	Boston, East Lindsey	Matt Warman	Conservative
Brigg and Goole	North Lincolnshire (plus part in East Riding of Yorkshire)	Andrew Percy	Conservative
Cleethorpes	North East Lincolnshire, North Lincolnshire	Martin Vickers	Conservative
Gainsborough	West Lindsey, East Lindsey	Edward Leigh	Conservative
Grantham and Stamford	South Kesteven	Nicholas Boles	Conservative
Great Grimsby	North East Lincolnshire	Melanie Onn	Labour
Lincoln	Lincoln, North Kesteven	Karl McCartney	Conservative
Louth and Horncastle	East Lindsey	Victoria Atkins	Conservative
Scunthorpe	North Lincolnshire	Nic Dakin	Labour
Sleaford and North Hykeham	North Kesteven, South Kesteven	Caroline Johnson	Conservative
South Holland and The Deepings	South Holland, South Kesteven	John Henry Hayes	Conservative

Lincolnshire County Council

2013 Lincolnshire County Council Election Results Map. The Conservatives remained as the largest party, but lost their majority, mainly due to gains from the UK Independence Party. North Lincolnshire & North East Lincolnshire are unitary authorities and do not form part of the non-metropolitan Lincolnshire)

A coalition of Conservatives, Liberal Democrats and Independents currently controls Lincolnshire County Council, with Labour as the opposition party.

2009 election

The Conservative Party comfortably controlled the County Council following the 2009 local elections, in which they increased their majority to 43 seats. The Labour Party lost a total of 15 seats including 7 in Lincoln, whilst the Liberal Democrats lost three. The Lincolnshire Independents gained a total of four seats, although one of their number moved to the Conservative group during 2010, increasing the number of Conservative seats to 61. The collective group of the Lincolnshire Independents, the Boston Bypass Party and other independent councillors formed the opposition for the four-year term.

2013 election

In the 2013 County Council elections, the Conservatives lost their majority and formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats and independents. The UK Independence Party made significant gains from the Conservatives, particularly around the town of Boston, due to opposition to Eastern European immigration.

UKIP were initially the main opposition party with 16 councillors, but now have only 10 after the others broke away to form a new party, UKIP Lincolnshire. The latter group are currently looking at changing their name to remove the «UKIP» reference altogether.

Lincolnshire County Council election, 2013
Party		Seats	Gains	Losses	Net gain/loss	Seats %	Votes %	Votes	+/−
	Conservative	36	1	26	−25	46.75	35.75	58,119	−29,645
	United Kingdom Independence Party	16	16	0	+16	20. 78	24.17	39,289	+33,681
	Labour	12	7	0	+7	15.58	18.40	29,919	+9,720
style=»background-color: Template:Lincolnshire Independents/meta/color; width: 3px;» \|	Lincolnshire Independents	8	5	0	+5	10.39	11.34	18,428	+794
	Liberal Democrat	3	0	2	−2	3.90	4.36	7,093	−29,392
	Independent	2	1	0	+1	2.60	5.43	8,831	−1,110
	BNP	0	0	0	0	0	0.27	435	−6,109
	TUSC	0	0	0	0	0	0.20	323	N/A
	Green	0	0	0	0	0	0. 08	136	−974

Referendums

1975 European Communities membership

The 1975 EC membership referendum was the first major referendum ever to be held within the county, and saw a large majority of voters approve continued membership of the then European Communities within non-metropolitan Lincolnshire and also Humberside, which included northern parts of historic Lincolnshire. The referendum was held on Thursday 5 June 1975 with all the votes counted centrally under the provisions of the Referendum Act 1975. The result was declared on the following day.

The result above only includes non-Metropolitan Lincolnshire as parts of historic northern Lincolnshire made up part of Humberside at the time.

County	Yes votes	No votes	Yes %	No %	Turnout %
Humberside	257,826	122,199	67.8	32.2	62.4

2011 Alternative Vote

The United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum, 2011 was the first to be held within Lincolnshire since the 1975 EC membership referendum and was only the second time that the people of Lincolnshire have been asked to vote in a referendum. The referendum asked voters whether to replace the present «first-past-the-post» (simple plurality) system with the «alternative vote» (AV) method for electing MPs to the House of Commons in future general elections. The proposal to introduce AV was overwhelmingly rejected by voters with all eight counting areas within Lincolnshire returning significant «no» votes.

The result above includes all areas within historic Lincolnshire

The seven shire-districts, and two unitary authorities within Lincolnshire were used as the Counting Areas.

Counting Areas	Turnout %	No votes	Yes votes	No %	Yes %
Boston	39.58	&&&&&&&&&&013337.&&&&&013,337	&&&&&&&&&&&03958.&&&&&03,958	77.11	22.89
East Lindsey	42. 60	&&&&&&&&&&034045.&&&&&034,045	&&&&&&&&&&010571.&&&&&010,571	76.31	23.69
Lincoln	36.68	&&&&&&&&&&016099.&&&&&016,099	&&&&&&&&&&&06951.&&&&&06,951	69.84	30.16
North East Lincolnshire	34.23	&&&&&&&&&&029484.&&&&&029,484	&&&&&&&&&&&09549.&&&&&09,549	75.54	24.46
North Lincolnshire	39.57	&&&&&&&&&&036031.&&&&&036,031	&&&&&&&&&&012542. &&&&&012,542	74.18	25.82
North Kesteven	42.95	&&&&&&&&&&027397.&&&&&027,397	&&&&&&&&&&&07926.&&&&&07,926	77.56	22.44
South Holland	39.83	&&&&&&&&&&020542.&&&&&020,542	&&&&&&&&&&&05603.&&&&&05,603	78.57	21.43
South Kesteven	42.63	&&&&&&&&&&032217.&&&&&032,217	&&&&&&&&&&011247.&&&&&011,247	74.12	25.88
West Lindsey	43.70	&&&&&&&&&&022882. &&&&&022,882	&&&&&&&&&&&08223.&&&&&08,223	73.56	26.44

2016 European Union membership

On Thursday 23 June 2016, in the EU referendum, the people of Lincolnshire voted for the second time on the issue of the UK’s continued membership of the European Union . Of the ten MPs which represented the historic county at the time six MPs Andrew Percy, Martin Vickers, Edward Leigh, Karl McCartney, Nick Boles, Stephen Phillips and John Hayes supported a «Leave» vote with four MPs Matt Warman, Victoria Atkins, Melanie Onn and Nic Dakin who supported a «Remain» vote.

The result above includes all areas within historic Lincolnshire

The seven shire-districts, and two unitary authorities within Lincolnshire were used as the voting areas.

Voting areas	Turnout %	Remain votes	Leave votes	Remain %	Leave %
Boston	77. 2%	7,430	22,974	24.4%	75.6%
East Lindsey	74.9%	23,515	56,613	29.3%	70.7%
Lincoln	69.3%	18,902	24,992	43.1%	57.0%
North East Lincolnshire	67.9%	23,797	55,185	30.1%	69.9%
North Lincolnshire	71.9%	29,947	58,915	33.7%	66.3%
North Kesteven	78.4%	25,570	42,183	37.7%	62.3%
South Holland	75.3%	13,074	36,423	26.4%	73.6%
South Kesteven	78.2%	33,047	49,424	40.1%	60.0%
West Lindsey	74.5%	20,906	33,847	38. 2%	61.8%

Towns and villages

The non-metropolitan county of Lincolnshire has no major urban areas, apart from the areas in and around Lincoln and Boston. However, the Skegness, Ingoldmells and Chapel St Leonards areas (and to a lesser extent the Sutton-on-Sea and Mablethorpe areas) along the Lincolnshire coast are becoming increasingly urbanised, as people holiday at large caravan sites during the summer. These holidaymakers are not reflected in census or local population figures, though it is estimated that at the height of the summer months there are over 100,000 such residents in these coastal areas. This has an appreciable impact on the local infrastructure and amenities.

Map of civil parishes within Lincolnshire

Largest settlements in Lincolnshire by population
Rank	City/ Town	District/Unitary Authority	Population (2011 est. )
1	Lincoln	Lincoln	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,».119,541
2	Grimsby	North East Lincolnshire	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,».88,243
3	Scunthorpe	North Lincolnshire	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,».79,977
4	Grantham	South Kesteven	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,». 41,998
5	Boston	Boston	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,».41,340
6	Cleethorpes	North East Lincolnshire	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,».39,505
7	Spalding	South Holland	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,».31,588
8	Skegness	East Lindsey	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,». 24,876
9	Gainsborough	West Lindsey	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,».20,842
10	Stamford	South Kesteven	0Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,»..Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character «,».19,701

For a more detailed list of the largest populated towns see the List of settlements in Lincolnshire by population page.

For a full list of Lincolnshire towns and villages see the List of places in Lincolnshire page.

Coastal tourism

The centre of Skegness, showing the clock tower and the «Jolly Fisherman» sculpture/fountain.

Seafront and beach at Cleethorpes

Skegness seafront and Pier

Ingoldmells beach

Beach Huts and Padding Pool at Sutton-on-Sea

Chapel St Leonards

The majority of tourism in Lincolnshire relies on the coastal resorts and towns to the east of the Lincolnshire Wolds. The county has some of the best-known seaside resorts in the United Kingdom, which are a major attraction to visitors from across England, especially the East Midlands and parts of Yorkshire. There are three main coastal resorts in Lincolnshire, and several smaller village resorts.

The main county seaside resort of Skegness with its famous Jolly Fisherman mascot and famous slogan «Skegness is so bracing», together with its neighbouring large village coastal resorts of Ingoldmells and Chapel St Leonards, provides the biggest concentration of resorts along the Lincolnshire Coast, with many large caravan and holiday sites. The resort offers many amusements, beaches, leisure activities and shops, as well as Butlins Skegness, Fantasy Island, Church Farm Museum, Natureland Seal Sanctuary, Skegness Stadium, Skegness Pier and several well-known local golf courses. There are good road, bus and rail links to the rest of the county.

The second largest group of resorts along the coast is the small seaside town of Mablethorpe, famous for its golden sands, and the neighbouring village resorts of Trusthorpe and Sutton-on-Sea. This area also offers leisure activities, and has large caravan and holiday sites. But the area is less developed, with fewer amusement arcades and nightclubs, and poorer road links to the rest of the county; but the area offers a more traditional seaside setting. The rail service to these towns was axed in the Beeching cuts.

The third group of resorts includes the seaside town of Cleethorpes and the large village resort of Humberston within North East Lincolnshire. It has Pleasure Island Family Theme Park, Cleethorpes Coast Light Railway and Cleethorpes Pier along with its local golf courses and caravan and holiday sites. Cleethorpes is well-served by road and rail; it is easily accessible from the M180 and the TransPennine Express route to Manchester.

Nature is an attraction for many tourists: the south-east of the county is mainly fenland that attracts many species of birds, as do the nature reserves at Gibraltar Point, Saltfleetby and Theddlethorpe. The reserve at Donna Nook also has a native seal colony popular with nature lovers.

The market towns of the Lincolnshire Wolds (Louth, Alford, Horncastle, Caistor and Spilsby) are also attractive, with several having historic links.^{[with what?]} The Wolds are quite popular for cycling and walking, with regular events such as the Lincolnshire Wolds Walking Festival.

Culture

Lincoln Cathedral

A view up ‘Steep Hill’ towards the historic quarter of Bailgate in Lincoln

Lincolnshire mobile library at Pode Hole. Lincolnshire County Council operate five routes, covering small villages in this large, sparse, county. Each location is visited once a month.

Lincolnshire is a rural area where the pace of life is generally much slower than in much of the United Kingdom. Sunday is still largely a day of rest, with only shops in Lincoln, larger market towns, and resorts and industrial towns of the North Sea coast generally remaining open. Some towns and villages in the county still observe half-day closing on Thursdays. Due to the large distances between the towns, many villages have remained very self-contained, with many still having shops, pubs, local halls and local chapels and churches, offering a variety of social activities for residents. Fishing (in the extensive river and drainage system in the fens) and shooting are popular activities. A lot of the culture in Lincoln itself is based upon its history. The Collection is an archaeological museum and art galley in Lincoln. Lincoln Cathedral also plays a large part in Lincoln’s culture, playing host to many events throughout the year, from concert recitals to indoor food markets.

A Lincolnshire tradition was that front doors were used for only three things: a new baby, a bride, and a coffin.

People

Lincolnshire is relatively unusual in the composition of its population, being one of the least ethnically diverse counties of the United Kingdom (98. 5% of the population describe themselves as «white»). Over recent years inward migration by people from ethnic minority communities has increased (particularly to population centres such as Lincoln and Boston) but the absolute number of non-white Lincolnshire residents remains very low.

Recently, the county has also witnessed a growing trend towards immigration of retired people from other parts of the United Kingdom, particularly those from the southern counties of England attracted by the generally lower property prices and the slower and more relaxed pace of life. The relatively high proportion of elderly and retired people is reflected in many of the services, activities and events. Sleaford is considered one of the fastest-growing towns in the East Midlands, with many professional people moving there to benefit from the (relatively) low house prices and crime rate, and the selective education.

Those born in Lincolnshire are sometimes given the nickname of Yellowbellies (often spelt «Yeller Bellies», to reflect the pronunciation of the phrase by the typical Lincolnshire farmer). The origin of this term is debated, but is most commonly believed to derive from the uniform of the 10th Regiment of Foot (later the Lincolnshire Regiment) which featured yellow facings. For this reason, the coat of arms of Lincolnshire County Council is supported by two officers of the regiment.

Notable people

Lincolnshire has many notable people associated with it, such as:

William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley

Captain John Smith

Sir Isaac Newton

Margaret Thatcher

John Wesley

Alfred, Lord Tennyson

Michael Foale

Sir Isaac Newton, celebrated Mathematician, Physicist, Natural Philosopher, Astronomer, Biblical theologist, alchemist, Warden and Master of the Mint, the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, and President of the Royal society.
Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister
Guthlac of Crowland
Zack Knight
Hereward the Wake
Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln
Hugh of Lincoln, Robert Grosseteste, Christopher Wordsworth and Edward King, Bishops of Lincoln
Nicolaa de la Haye
Lucy of Bolingbroke
Aaron of Lincoln
Berechiah de Nicole
Eleanor of Castile
Katherine Swynford
Gilbert of Sempringham, Saint and Founder of the Gilbertine Order
Henry IV of England
William Byrd, composer
Chief Advisor to Queen Elizabeth I William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley
Havelok the Dane
Arctic explorer Sir John Franklin
Botanist and plant collector Joseph Banks
Navigator and cartographer Matthew Flinders
Geographer Halford Mackinder
Explorer of Australia George Bass
Mathematician George Boole
One of the Founding Fathers of the United States, Thomas Paine, who was appointed as a Grantham-based excise officer in December 1762.
Chronometer innovator John Harrison
Antiquarian William Stukeley
Artists Frank Bramley and Peter De Wint
Journalist Herbert Ingram
Poets Alfred Lord Tennyson, Jean Ingelow, Anne Bradstreet, Elizabeth Jennings and Andreas Kalvos
Bishop and founder of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, Richard Foxe
Protestant martyr Anne Askew
Founder of the Baptist denomination John Smyth (Baptist minister)
Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift
Translator on the Committee for The King James Bible Robert Tighe
Author of «Foxe’s Book of Martyrs» John Foxe
Puritan John Cotton
Founders of the Methodist movement John Wesley and Charles Wesley.
Preacher Samuel Eyles Pierce
Theologian and Methodist writer Richard Watson
Bible commentator and co-founder of Church Missionary Society Thomas Scott (commentator)
Leader of the settlement Jamestown, Virginia, Captain John Smith
Actresses Madge Kendal and Sybil Thorndike
A part of the Music Hall Act Old Mother Riley, Arthur Lucan
Railway administrator Frank Pick
Businesswoman and Welsh language translator Lady Charlotte Guest
Inventor of Crucible Steel Benjamin Huntsman
Tenor Alfred Piccaver
Field Marshal William Robertson
Founder of «The Samaritans» Chad Varah
Industrialists Joseph Ruston and William Tritton
R. A.F personnel Douglas Bader, Leslie Manser, Frank Whittle, Guy Gibson
Victoria Cross recipients Charles Richard Sharpe, Harold Jackson (VC), Guy Gibson, Thomas Colclough Watson and Gonville Bromhead
Medal of Honor recipient George Green (Medal of Honor)
Founder of Royal College of Nursing Sarah Swift
Historian Francis Hill
Archbishops of Canterbury Æthelhard, Stephen Langton and John Whitgift
Fashion Designer Charles Frederick Worth
Hangman William Marwood
Frontiersman George Davenport
ballad composer and hymn writer Charlotte Alington Barnard
Footballer Ted Savage
Leaders of the Lincolnshire Rebellion Nicholas Melton and Rev.Thomas Kendall

Present day figures include

Actors Thomas Turgoose, Jim Broadbent, Jonathan Kerrigan, Neil McCarthy and John Alderton
Actresses Patricia Hodge, Joan Plowright, Liz Smith, Kelly Adams and Sheridan Smith
Actress and comedian Jennifer Saunders
Singer and songwriter Ella Henderson
Radio and TV presenter Nicholas Parsons
Author of My Mad Fat Teenage Diary (the basis for the television show My Mad Fat Diary) Rae Earl
Crime writer Colin Dexter
Astronaut Michael Foale
Songwriters Bernie Taupin and Rod Temperton
Military historian and author Bruce Barrymore Halpenny
Actor and comedian Robert Webb
Musicians Jane Taylor and Neville Marriner
Musician and composer Robert Wyatt
Golfer Tony Jacklin
Shotputter Geoff Capes
Swimmers Paul Palmer, Kate Haywood and Brenda Fisher
Footballers Lee Chapman, Ray Clemence, Chris Woods, and Paul Mayo
Cricketer Luke Wright
Fashion designer Antonio Berardi
Glamour model Abi Titmuss
Motorcycle racer and television presenter Guy Martin
Business executive and wife of the Prime Minister, Samantha Cameron
Newsreader and journalist Helen Fospero
Television presenter and Children’s Author Jason Bradbury
YouTuber and inventor Colin Furze
Drum and Bass Producer and DJ J-Wok

Language

In common with most other Northern and Midlands dialects in England, «flat» a is preferred, i. e. over and also traditionally in words like water, pronounced watter (though such a pronunciation is rarely heard nowadays). Similarly is usually replaced by. Features rather more confined to Lincolnshire include:

Elaboration of standard English or into a complex triphthong approximating, and often transcribed -air- or -yair-. For example: «mate» «beast» «tates» (potatoes).
An equivalent elaboration of standard English – commonly in Northern England – into -ooa-. For example, «boat«.
Insertion of an extra schwa into the standard English diphthong.
Vocabulary: «duck» as a term of endearment or informal address, «mardy» meaning upset or angry, «mowt» (pronounced like mout) for might,»while» as a substitute for standard English «until», «frit» meaning frightened, «grufty» meaning dirty or disgusting, and the inimitable salutation «now then!?» (hello), sometimes written nairn to reflect pronunciation.
In the north east of the county, around Grimsby and Immingham, the nurse-square merger can be heard, as is also the case along the east coast of Yorkshire and coincidentally also in Liverpool. Words that take in RP take in these areas.

Lincolnshire has its own dialect «champion», a farmer from the village of Minting called Farmer Wink (real name Robert Carlton), who has produced videos about rural life, narrated in his broad Lincolnshire accent, and who has a regular slot on BBC Radio Lincolnshire. A resident of Woodhall Spa, ironically one of the Lincolnshire settlements least aligned to the county’s architectural style, has published a dictionary of words once prevalent in parts of the county.

Music

Lincolnshire was historically associated with the Lincolnshire bagpipe, an instrument derided as a coarse and unpleasant instrument in contemporary literature, but noted as very popular in the county. The last player, John Hunsley of Middle Manton, died in 1851, and since then the instrument has been extinct.

In 1937, Percy Grainger wrote his Lincolnshire Posy for wind band. The piece is a compilation of folk songs «musical wildflowers» collected by the composer in and around the county of Lincolnshire.

The Lincolnshire Poacher is a traditional English folk song associated with the county of Lincolnshire, and deals with the joys of poaching. It is considered to be the unofficial county anthem of Lincolnshire.

Food

Lincolnshire sausages.

Lincolnshire has a number of local dishes:

Stuffed chine – this is salted neck-chine of a pig taken from between the shoulder blades, salted for up to ten months and stuffed with parsley (other ingredients are normally kept secret), and served cold.
Haslet – a type of pork loaf, also flavoured with sage (pronounced HAYSS-let or AYSS-let in Lincolnshire but HAZ-let in many other parts of the country).
Lincolnshire sausages – most butchers in Lincolnshire have their own secret recipe for these and a competition is held each year to judge the best sausages in the county. Traditional Lincolnshire sausages are made entirely from minced pork, stale bread crumb (rusk is used nowadays) pepper, sage and salt. The skins should be natural casings which are made from the intestines of either sheep or pig.
Pork pies – the same pork butchers will take a pride in their unique recipe for pork pies.
Giblet pie.
Mutton stuffed with oysters.
Plum bread – as with plum pudding, plum refers to dried fruit, namely currants, raisins and sultanas, sometimes soaked in tea.
Grantham Gingerbread – a hard white ginger biscuit.
Lincolnshire Poacher cheese – cheddar cheese produced in Alford. Lincolnshire Poacher has won numerous awards over the years including Supreme Champion at the 1996/7 British Cheese Awards and Best British Cheese at the World Cheese awards in 2001/2.
Batemans ales – a beer brewed in Wainfleet and served in many pubs in the county and further afield.
There are several small breweries.
Grimsby is renowned for its fishing industry, and historically Grimsby Fish has carried a premium price. Since the decline of the fishing industry following entry to the European Economic Community in the 1970s this is no longer the case, with the majority of fish sold at the town’s fish market being brought overland from other ports. However, Grimsby Fish is still a recognised product, one associated with a particular area that specialises in and has expertise in a particular trade (cf Sheffield steel). In 2009 smoked fish from the town was granted Protected Geographical Indication by the European Union, reflecting the unique smoking methods used by certain local fish companies.

Craft Chocolatiers can be found throughout the county, such as Hansens in Folkingham. In 2013 Redstar Chocolate’s Duffy’s Venezuela Ocumare Milk won a Gold medal as best bean-to-bar. The factory is in Cleethorpes.

Events

Every year the Lincolnshire Agricultural Society, founded in 1869, stages the Lincolnshire Agricultural Show. It is held on the Wednesday and Thursday of the last whole week of June at its showground at Grange de Lings, a few miles north of Lincoln on the A15. The show was first held here in 1958. First held around the year 1884, it is one of the largest agricultural shows in the country, and is attended by around 100,000 people over its two days. The showground is in regular use throughout the year for a wide range of other events and functions.

Smaller local agricultural shows, such as the Heckington Show can still be found. Corby Glen sheep fair has been held since 1238.

The Red Arrows, based at RAF Scampton near Lincoln are a popular attraction at the Waddington Air Show

Each year RAF Waddington is the home to the RAF International Waddington Air Show. The two-day event attracts around 150,000 people and usually takes place during the first weekend of July. Since its inception over 35 countries have participated, with aircraft from around the globe attending the Lincolnshire Base. Beginning 2017, the event will be held at nearby RAF Scampton.

On the Monday before Easter, an unusual auction takes place in Bourne to let the grazing rights of the Whitebread Meadow. Bidding takes place while two boys race toward the Queen’s Bridge in Eastgate, the end of which dash is equivalent to the falling of the gavel. The whole affair dates back to the 1742 will of William Clay.

The Haxey Hood village competition takes place every January, as it has for over 700 years.

Stamford Mid-Lent fair sees showmen converge on the town the week after Mothering Sunday, with rides and sideshows filling Broad Street, the Sheepmarket and the Meadows for a week. Stalls selling Grantham gingerbread and nougat are a traditional feature. The following week sees them in Grantham, on the way North for the Summer. Roger Tuby brings a small funfair to Bourne and then to Spalding in Spring and returns in Autumn at the end of the season.

The villages of Tetford and Salmonby hold an annual Scarecrow Festival in May every year.

The Belchford Downhill Challenge which is held every two years: soapbox racers race down the hill at up to 30 km/h. The turnout has been up to 1,000.

In recent years Lincoln Christmas Market, a street market throughout historic area of the city, has been held at the start of December. Around the same time Christmas lights are turned on in Bourne, Sleaford, Skegness, and other towns.

Throughout the summer the Stamford Shakespeare Company presents the Bard’s plays in the open-air theatre at Tolethorpe Hall, which is actually in Rutland.

The Spalding Flower Parade is held in late spring every year. Colourful floats decorated with tulip heads compete for a cup. The tradition was started in 1959 and draws coach tours from across Britain.

Sport

The Gold Victorian-style Penfold post box in Lincoln painted in recognition of Paralympian Sophie Wells who won the gold medal in the team Equestrian event at the 2012 Paralympic Games in London. It is the only post box painted gold within the county

The main sports played in the county are football, cricket and rugby union. Lincolnshire does not have a high sporting profile, mainly due to the lack of facilities and high-profile football teams. Probably the most well known sporting venues in Lincolnshire are Cadwell Park near Louth, where a round of the British Motorbike Championship is held on the last Monday of August every year and the racecourse at Market Rasen

Two teams from Lincolnshire play in the Football League: Scunthorpe United play in Football League One, while Grimsby Town play in Football League Two. In non-league football Lincoln City play in the Conference National, whilst Boston United and Gainsborough Trinity play in the Football Conference North.
In cricket Lincolnshire are a minor county and play in the Minor Counties Championship.
In hockey Lindum Hockey Club play in the North of Lincoln.
There is no major rugby union team from Lincolnshire; however, the sport is played in many schools throughout the county.
Lincolnshire is home to one racecourse, at Market Rasen.
Cadwell Park is the only motor racing course in Lincolnshire. There is a speedway track in Scunthorpe, home of the Scorpions, and stock-car racing at a stadium at Orby, near Skegness.
Lincolnshire is home to the UK roller derby team the Lincolnshire Bombers Roller Girls, who are sponsored by Motörhead.

Symbols

The Lincolnshire flag

The Lincoln Imp high above the choir on the southern side of Lincoln Cathedral

The unofficial anthem of the county is the traditional folk song, «The Lincolnshire Poacher», which dates from around 1776. A version of the song was the theme to BBC Radio Lincolnshire for many years.

According to a 2002 marketing campaign by the charity Plantlife, the county flower of Lincolnshire is the Common Dog-violet.

In August 2005, BBC Radio Lincolnshire and Lincolnshire Life magazine launched a vote for a flag to represent the county. Six competing designs were voted upon by locals. The winning submission was unveiled in October 2005. Lincoln has its own flag – St George’s flag with a Fleur-de-Lys.

The Lincoln Imp has symbolised Cathedral, City, and county for many years. In 2006 it was replaced as the brand of Lincolnshire County Council by the stylised version seen on the header here [1] which has lost even the unique pose of the carving.

Press

The county is home to one daily newspaper, the Grimsby Telegraph which as the name suggests, is published in the town and whose circulation area ostensibly covers North East Lincolnshire, although it reaches as far south as Louth and Alford and as west as Brigg.

There are two further weekly papers which used to be published daily until 2011; the Lincolnshire Echo is published weekly from Lincoln and covers the majority of the county reaching as far north as Louth, and the Scunthorpe Telegraph which covers northern Lincolnshire. All three are ultimately owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust.

There are also a number of weekly papers serving individual towns published in the county by Johnston Press. One of these, the Stamford Mercury claims to be Britain’s oldest newspaper, although it is now a typical local weekly and no longer covers stories from the whole East Midlands as the archived copies did.

Military

Typhoon FGR.4 aircraft, based at RAF Coningsby.

Main page: Royal Air Force

Because of its flat geography and low population density, Lincolnshire is an ideal place for airfields, and the RAF built prolifically in the county, which has hosted nearly seventy separate bases. With the drawdown of the RAF, most stations have closed, but the RAF retains a significant footprint. For more information on former bases, see here.

Lincolnshire is currently home to a number of RAF Stations, including two major front-line bases, RAF Coningsby, which houses Typhoon jet fighters, and RAF Waddington, where most of the RAF’s Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance aircraft are based. Other stations in Lincolnshire include RAF Cranwell, home of all basic Officer training for the Royal Air Force, RAF Scampton, home of the Red Arrows, RAF Barkston Heath, a training airfield, and minor bases such as RAF Kirton in Lindsey, RAF Holbeach, RAF Donna Nook and RAF Digby.

The Army runs Sobraon Barracks, home of 160 (Lincoln) Squadron, Royal Logistic Corps, as well as Prince William of Gloucester Barracks, Grantham, home to some of the RLC’s Phase 2 training and the PTI School.

Places of interest

Key
	Owned by the National Trust
	Owned by English Heritage
	Owned by the Forestry Commission
	A Country Park
	An Accessible open space
	Museum (free)
	Museum (charges entry fee)
	Heritage railway
	Historic House

Alford Manor House
Alford Windmill
Alkborough Turf Maze
Ayscoughfee Hall
Bardney Limewoods
Baldocks Mill
Belmont Mast (tallest construction in the European Union)
Belton House
Bolingbroke Castle
Boston Stump
Bourne Abbey
Boultham Park
Branston Hall
Burghley House
Church Farm Museum, Skegness
Crowland Abbey
Cogglesford Mill
Dambusters Inn and Heritage Centre
Doddington Hall
Dogdyke Engine
Donna Nook
Dunston Pillar
East Lighthouse, Sutton Bridge
Ellis Mill (Windmill)
Fantasy Island, Ingoldmells
Gainsborough Old Hall
Gainsthorpe Deserted Medieval Village
Gibraltar Point
Gordon Boswell Romany Museum
Grantham Museum
Grimsby Dock Tower
Grimsthorpe Castle
Gunby Hall
Hartsholme Country Park
Harlaxton Manor
Heckington Windmill
Hubbard’s Hills, Louth
Kesteven Forest
Lincoln Arboretum
Lincoln Castle
Lincoln Cathedral
Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre

Lincolnshire’s Coastal Grazing Marshes

Lincolnshire Wolds Railway
Maud Foster Windmill, Skirbeck, Boston
Metheringham Windmill
Mount Pleasant Mill, Kirton in Lindsey
Mrs Smith’s Cottage, Navenby
National Fishing Heritage Centre
Natureland Seal Sanctuary
Normanby Hall
Pelham’s Pillar
Pinchbeck Engine and museum of Land Drainage
River Ancholme
Snipe Dales
St. James Church, Louth
St. Peter’s Church, Barton upon Humber
Sibsey Trader Mill
Somerton Castle
Stamford Meadows
Stamford Museum
Stow Minster
Tattershall Castle
Tattershall College
The Collection (The Usher Art Gallery)
The Humber Bridge
The Lincolnshire Wolds
The Museum of Lincolnshire Life
The South Common, Lincoln
The Wash
The West Common, Lincoln
Thornton Abbey
Waltham Windmill
Whisby Nature Park
Woolsthorpe Manor

Economy

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Lincolnshire at current basic prices, according to the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.

Year	Regional gross value added (£ millions)	Agriculture	Industry	Services
1995	5,719	657	1,769	3,292
2000	6,512	452	2,046	4,013
2003	8,419	518	2,518	5,383

includes hunting and forestry

includes energy and construction

includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured

Notable businesses based in Lincolnshire include the Lincs FM Group, Young’s Seafood, Openfield and the Lincolnshire Co-operative (whose membership includes about one quarter of the population of the county).

Agriculture

Lincolnshire farmland near Burton Coggles

Lincolnshire has long been a primarily agricultural area, and it continues to grow large amounts of wheat, barley, sugar beet, and oilseed rape. In south Lincolnshire, where the soil is particularly rich in nutrients, some of the most common crops include potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers, and onions. Lincolnshire farmers often break world records for crop yields. South Lincolnshire is also home to one of the UK’s leading agricultural experiment stations, located in Sutton Bridge and operated by the Potato Council; Sutton Bridge Crop Storage Research engages in research for the British potato industry.

The Lincoln Longwool is a rare breed of sheep, named after the region, which was developed both for wool and mutton, at least 500 years ago, and has the longest fleece of any sheep breed. The Lincoln Red is an old breed of beef cattle, originating from the county. In the mid 20th century most farms in Lincolnshire moved away from mixed farming to specialise in arable cropping, partly due to cheap wool imports, partly to take advantage of efficiencies of scale and partly because the drier land on the eastern side of England is particularly suitable for arable cropping.

Mechanization around 1900 greatly diminished the number of workers required to operate the county’s relatively large farms, and the proportion of workers in the agricultural sector dropped substantially during this period. Several major engineering companies developed in Lincoln, Gainsborough and Grantham to support those changes. Among these was Fosters of Lincoln, which built the first tank, and Richard Hornsby & Sons of Grantham. Most such industrial companies left during late 20th-century restructuring.

Today, immigrant workers, mainly from new member states of the European Union in Central and Eastern Europe, comprise a large component of the seasonal agricultural workforce, particularly in the south of the county. Here more labour-intensive crops are produced, such as small vegetables and cut flowers. This seasonal influx of migrant labour occasionally causes tension between the migrant workforce and local people, in a county which had been relatively unaccustomed to large-scale immigration. Agricultural training is provided at Riseholme College and in 2016 the University of Lincoln opened the Lincoln Institute for Agri-Food Technology.

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Classical mechanics Facts for Kids

Kids Encyclopedia Facts

Diagram of orbital motion of a satellite around the earth, showing perpendicular velocity and acceleration (force) vectors.

In physics, classical mechanics is one of two major sub-fields of mechanics. The other sub-field is quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the influence of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects in science, engineering and technology. It is also known as Newtonian mechanics, though textbook authors often consider Newtonian mechanics, along with Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics, as the three main formalisms of classical mechanics.

Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars and galaxies. Within classical mechanics are sub-fields, including those that describe the behavior of solids, liquids and gases. Classical mechanics provides extremely accurate results when studying large objects and speeds not approaching the speed of light.

When the objects being examined are sufficiently small, it becomes necessary to introduce the other major sub-field of mechanics: quantum mechanics. This sub-field adjusts the laws of physics of macroscopic objects for the atomic nature of matter by including the wave–particle duality of atoms and molecules.

When neither quantum nor classical mechanics apply, such as at the quantum level with high speeds, quantum field theory (QFT) becomes applicable.

The term classical mechanics was coined in the early 20th century. It describes the system of physics started by Isaac Newton and many contemporary 17th century natural philosophers. It is also built upon the earlier astronomical theories of Johannes Kepler. Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist and interact. It assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes such as location in space and speed.

Newton’s Three Laws
Kinematic Equations
- 1-Dimensional Kinematics
- 2-Dimensional Kinematics
  - X-Direction Equations
  - Y-Direction Equations
Branches
Related pages
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Newton’s Three Laws

A page from Newton’s book about the three laws of motion

Newton’s three laws of motion are important to classical mechanics. Isaac Newton made them.

The first law says that, if there is no external force (meaning there is no pushing, gravity, or any sort of power), things that are stopped will stay stopped or un-moving, and things that are moving will keep moving. Before, people thought that things stopped if there was no force present. Often, people say, Objects that are stopped tend to stay stopped, and objects that are moving tend to stay moving, unless acted upon by an outside force, such as gravity, friction, etc….

The second law says how a force moves a thing. The net force on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum.

The third law says that if one thing puts a force on another thing, the second thing also puts a force on the first thing. The second force is equal in size to the first force. The forces act in opposite directions. For example, if you jump forward off a boat, the boat moves backward. Often, people say, For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Kinematic Equations

In physics, kinematics is the part of classical mechanics that explains the movement of objects without looking at what causes the movement or what the movement affects.

1-Dimensional Kinematics

1-Dimensional (1D) Kinematics are used only when an object moves in one direction: either side to side (left to right) or up and down. There are equations with can be used to solve problems that have movement in only 1 dimension or direction. These equations come from the definitions of velocity, acceleration and distance.

The first 1D kinematic equation deals with acceleration and velocity. If acceleration and velocity do not change. (Does not need include distance)

Equation:

V_f is the final velocity.

v_i is the starting or initial velocity

a is the acceleration

t is time — how long the object was accelerated for.
The second 1D kinematic equation finds the distance moved, by using the average velocity and the time. (Does not need include acceleration)

Equation:

x is the distance moved.

V_f is the final velocity.

v_i is the starting or initial velocity

t is time
The third 1D kinematic equation finds the distance travelled, while the object is accelerating. It deals with velocity, acceleration, time and distance. (Does not need include final velocity)

Equation:

is the final distance moved

x_i is the starting or initial distance

v_i is the starting or initial velocity

a is the acceleration

t is time
The fourth 1D kinematic equation finds the final velocity by using the initial velocity, acceleration and distance travelled. (Does not need include time)

Equation:

V_f is the final velocity

v_i is the starting or initial velocity

a is the acceleration

x is the distance moved

2-Dimensional Kinematics

2-Dimensional kinematics is used when motion happens in both the x-direction (left to right) and the y-direction (up and down). There are also equations for this type of kinematics. However, there are different equations for the x-direction and different equations for the y-direction. Galileo proved that the velocity in the x-direction does not change through the whole run. However, the y-direction is affected by the force of gravity, so the y-velocity does change during the run.

X-Direction Equations

Left and Right movement

The first x-direction equation is the only one that is needed to solve problems, because the velocity in the x-direction stays the same.

Equation:

X is the distance moved in the x-direction

V_x is the velocity in the x-direction

t is time

Y-Direction Equations

Up and Down movement. Affected by gravity or other external acceleration

The first y-direction equation is almost the same as the first 1-Dimensional kinematic equation except it deals with the changing y-velocity. It deals with a freely falling body while its being affected by gravity. (Distance is not needed)

Equation:

V_fy is the final y-velocity

v_iy is the starting or initial y-velocity

g is the acceleration because of gravity which is 9. 8 or 32

t is time
The second y-direction equation is used when the object is being affected by a separate acceleration, not by gravity. In this case, the y-component of the acceleration vector is needed. (Distance is not needed)

Equation:

V_fy is the final y-velocity

v_iy is the starting or initial y-velocity

a_y is the y-component of the acceleration vector

t is the time
The third y-direction equation finds the distance moved in the y-direction by using the average y-velocity and the time. (Does not need acceleration of gravity or external acceration)

Equation:

X_y is the distance moved in the y-direction

V_fy is the final y-velocity

v_iy is the starting or initial y-velocity

t is the time
The fourth y-direction equation deals with the distance moved in the y-direction while being affected by gravity. (Does not need final y-velocity)

Equation:

is the final distance moved in the y-direction

x_iy is the starting or initial distance in the y-direction

v_iy is the starting or initial velocity in the y-direction

g is the acceleration of gravity which is 9.8 or 32

t is time
The fifth y-direction equation deals with the distance moved in the y-direction while being affected by a different acceleration other than gravity. (Does not need final y-velocity)

Equation:

is the final distance moved in the y-direction

x_iy is the starting or initial distance in the y-direction

v_iy is the starting or initial velocity in the y-direction

a_y is the y-component of the acceleration vector

t is time
The sixth y-direction equation finds the final y-velocity while it is being affected by gravity over a certain distance. (Does not need time)

Equation:

V_fy is the final velocity in the y-direction

V_iy is the starting or initial velocity in the y-direction

g is the acceleration of gravity which is 9.8 or 32

x_y is the total distance moved in the y-direction
The seventh y-direction equation finds the final y-velocity while it is being affected by an acceleration other than gravity over a certain distance. (Does not need time)

Equation:

V_fy is the final velocity in the y-direction

V_iy is the starting or initial velocity in the y-direction

a_y is the y-component of the acceleration vector

x_y is the total distance moved in the y-direction

Branches

Classical mechanics was traditionally divided into three main branches:

Statics, the study of equilibrium and its relation to forces
Dynamics, the study of motion and its relation to forces
Kinematics, dealing with the implications of observed motions without regard for circumstances causing them

Another division is based on the choice of mathematical formalism:

Newtonian mechanics
Lagrangian mechanics
Hamiltonian mechanics

Alternatively, a division can be made by region of application:

Celestial mechanics, relating to stars, planets and other celestial bodies
Continuum mechanics, for materials modelled as a continuum, e. g., solids and fluids (i.e., liquids and gases).
Relativistic mechanics (i.e. including the special and general theories of relativity), for bodies whose speed is close to the speed of light.
Statistical mechanics, which provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk thermodynamic properties of materials.

Newton’s laws of motion

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Classical mechanics Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.

Brief biography of Isaac Newton the most important

Biographies

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Newton Isaac

In many universities you can see the portrait of Isaac Newton, a famous mathematician and physicist (this scientist was also involved in alchemy). The scientist’s father was a farmer. Isaac was often ill, shunned his peers, and was raised by his grandmother. The future scientist studied at the Grantham School, and in 1661 he entered the College of the Holy Trinity (now Trinity College) of the notorious Cambridge University. In 1665 Newton became a bachelor, and three years later a master. During his studies, Isaac conducted experiments and designed a mirror telescope.

In 1687, Isaac published his work on the mathematical principles of natural philosophy, which described the laws of dynamics, the foundations of the doctrine of the resistance of gases and liquids. For more than thirty years, Isaac was the head of the Cambridge Department of Physics and Mathematics, and at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Queen Anne granted Newton a knighthood. For many decades, Isaac experienced serious financial difficulties, and only in 1695 did his financial situation improve after taking the vacancy of the caretaker of the Mint.

For more than two centuries, Isaac Newton has been considered one of the world’s most famous scientists. During his life he managed to make a significant contribution to many modern sciences. He formulated the most important laws of classical mechanics, explained the mechanism of movement of celestial bodies. In 1692, the scientist was overtaken by a mental breakdown, provoked by a fire that destroyed a substantial number of his manuscripts. After the disease receded, Newton continued to engage in science, but with less intensity.

Newton lived to be over eighty years old. In the last years of his life, Isaac devoted many hours to theology, as well as to biblical history. The remains of the great scientist were buried in Westminster Abbey.

Achievement and personal life

The name of Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is inscribed in golden letters in the history of world science; the English scientist also laid the foundation for subsequent scientific developments in the field of optics and acoustics. Newton, in addition to physical experiments, was also a connoisseur of alchemy and history. The activities of the scientist were often poorly evaluated by his contemporaries, but today it is clear to the naked eye that his scientific views significantly exceeded the level of medieval science.

Isaac was born in 1642 in the English village of Woolsthorpe (Lincolnshire) in the family of a poor farmer. The boy was quite frail and sickly, physically weak, brought up by his grandmother, was very withdrawn and unsociable. At the age of 12, the boy entered a school in Grantham, six years later, after graduating from it, he entered the University of Cambridge, where he was taught by I. Barrow himself, a famous mathematician.

In 1665, Newton received a bachelor’s degree and until 1667 was in his native Woolsthorpe: it was during this period that the scientist was actively engaged in scientific developments — experiments on the decomposition of light, the invention of a mirror telescope, the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, etc. In 1668, the scientist returned to his native university, received a master’s degree there and, with the support of I. Barrow, headed the physical and mathematical department of his native university (until 1701).

Some time later, in 1672, the young inventor became a member of one of the world’s largest scientific societies in London. In 1687, his most ambitious work entitled “The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” was published, where the scientist generalized the scientific experience accumulated by previous scientists (Galileo Galilei, Rene Descartes, Christian Huygens, etc.), as well as independent scientific conclusions and created a unified system mechanics, which to this day is the foundation of physics as a science.

I. Newton also formulated well-known 3 postulates, axioms, which today are known as «Newton’s three laws»: the law of inertia, the basic law of dynamics, the law of equality in the interaction of two material bodies. The “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” played a huge role in the development of physics, gave impetus to the further study of mathematics, mechanics, and optics. the reason for the great intellectual disorder of the inventor, during this period his scientific activity falls into decline.

In 1695, Newton was invited to the civil service, became the superintendent of the state Mint and supervised the reminting of coins in the kingdom. For services to the crown, in 1699 the scientist was presented with the honorary title of director of the Mint, and also became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. At the beginning of the 18th century, Isaac Newton was at the peak of his fame, he headed the Royal Society of London, in 1705 he was awarded a knighthood, that is, he received a title of nobility.

At the end of his life, the scientist retired from scientific activity, was in public service until 1725. The scientist’s health worsened every year: in the spring of 1727 in the town of Kensington, near London, the brilliant scientist Isaac Newton died in his sleep. After his death, the scientist was awarded great honors, was buried in Westminster Abbey next to the English kings and prominent political leaders of the state. Newton’s contribution to the development of science remains invaluable to this day, his works are a fundamental basis for modern researchers.

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Biography of Isaac Newton essay example

Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643. He was born in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England. His father, also Isaac Newton, was a farmer. Unfortunately, Isaac Newton’s father died before he was born. Isaac Newton’s father could neither read nor write. Three years later, Anna Eiskaf, mother of Isaac Newton, married a churchman. Newton did not like his mother’s new husband and went to live with his grandmother. As a teenager, he even threatened to burn down their house. When Newton was 12 years old, he studied at the Royal School in Grantham. He was taught the classics, not science or mathematics. When Newton was 17 years old, his mother took him out of school so that he could become a farmer like his father.

Shortly thereafter, Newton discovered that he was not a good farmer and did not want to become a farmer. His mother allowed him to go back to school. Newton graduated as the top student. When Isaac Newton was 18 years old, he began studying law at Trinity College, Cambridge University. He earned money as a personal servant for wealthier students. In his third year of college, Newton studied mathematics and physics extensively. He was also very interested in pseudoscience.

Newton began to neglect the ideas he was taught in class because his physics lectures were based on their teachings on the wrong ideas of Aristotle from Ancient Greece. He preferred to study the more scientifically correct ideas of Galileo, Boyle, Descartes and Kepler. By reading and studying the scientists mentioned above, Newton became more ambitious with his own discoveries. He began writing notes for himself asking questions that science had not yet answered, such as questions about gravity, the nature of light, the nature of color and vision, and atoms. After his third year at Cambridge, he won a four-year scholarship during which he devoted his time to his studies. Newton’s first discovery was made during the second year of his four-year fellowship.

In mathematics, he discovered the generalized binomial theorem. In the same year, he was also awarded a bachelor’s degree. Newton returned home to Woolsthorpe after the Great Plague forced Cambridge to close. When Newton was 24 years old, he returned to Cambridge. He was elected a Fellow of Trinity College. The Fellows were people from a wide variety of institutions and were responsible for maintaining the college as a place of education, teaching, and research. A year later, Newton was awarded a master’s degree. When Newton turned 26, Isaac Barrow, professor of mathematics at Lavkas at Trinity College, resigned. He suggested that Newton follow him. Newton was appointed to replace Barrow. Barrow said: “Mr. Newton, fellow of our college, and very young, but in his second year of Master of Arts; but extraordinary genius and skill. » Isaac Newton had many discoveries in his life. He showed that sunlight is made up of all the colors of the rainbow. He did this by using a single glass prism to split a beam of light into different colors. He then used another prism to combine the colors again to make a beam of light.

Newton discovered the calculus or mathematics of change. Its development was influenced by the work of Pierre de Fermat, who showed concrete examples where calculus-like methods could be used. Newton put forward the ideas of differential calculus, integral calculus and differential equations. Without calculus, we would not be able to understand the behavior of objects such as electrons and have modern physics and physical chemistry. Biology and economics also rely heavily on calculus for analysis. He also discovered the law of universal gravitation. This proved that the force that keeps the moon in orbit around the Earth was the same force that makes apples fall from trees: gravity. Newton came up with an equation that allows us to calculate the force of gravity between two objects. This equation is: F = G m1m2 / r2. Isaac Newton also formulated his three laws of motion. Newton’s first law of motion: if the net force of an object is zero, the motion of the object will not change. Newton’s second law of motion is that the acceleration of an object is equal to the net force acting on the object divided by the mass of the object.

Newton’s Third Law: When one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal force in the opposite direction from the first object. Other discoveries were included when Newton showed that Kepler’s laws of motion are special cases of Newton’s universal gravitation. Newton also proved that all objects moving through space under the influence of gravity must follow a path shaped like one of the conic sections, explaining the path followed by all planets and comets. Newton showed that tides are caused by the gravitational interaction between the earth, moon and sun. Newton predicted that the Earth is not a perfect sphere but rather crushed into a compressed sphere (more around the equator and less around the poles). Isaac Newton wrote the book «Principles».

In it, he explains gravity and motion through mathematics. At first, only a few people could understand the Principles when they were first published. Gradually, Newton’s ideas were spread by the few who understood what he had written. Isaac Newton died on March 31, 1727. He was 84 years old. Isaac Newton never married and never had children. He was buried at Westminster Abbey in London. Some of Newton’s ideas were accepted earlier than others. Because he was so smart, other people couldn’t understand what he discovered. This made it so that some other people and scientists did not immediately accept his ideas, but realized that he was right when he or others explained it.

The world discovered by Isaac Newton changed in many ways. Without his discoveries, other academic disciplines would not have been possible to study or understand. His discoveries allow us to better understand how our world works and how we move on a daily basis. Without his discoveries, we would have many unanswered questions.

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Blake «Isaac Newton» description of the painting, analysis, composition

Physics > What did Isaac Newton discover?

Discoveries of Isaac Newton — laws and physics from one of the greatest geniuses. Learn the law of universal gravitation, the three laws of motion, gravity, the shape of the Earth.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is remembered as a philosopher, scientist and mathematician. For his time, he did a lot and actively participated in the scientific revolution. Interestingly, his views, laws and Newtonian physics will prevail for another 300 years after his death. In fact, we have before us the creator of classical physics.

Subsequently, the word «Newtonian» will be inserted to all statements related to his theories. Isaac Newton is considered one of the greatest geniuses and most influential scientists, whose work covered many scientific fields. But what do we owe him and what discoveries did he make?

Three laws of motion

Let’s start with his famous work «Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy» (1687), which revealed the foundations of classical mechanics. These are the three laws of motion derived from the laws of planetary motion put forward by Johannes Kepler.

Newton and his divine geometer. By William Blake (1795)

The first law is inertia: an object at rest will remain at rest until it is affected by a force unbalanced. A body in motion will continue to move at its original speed and in the same direction unless it encounters an unbalanced force. 92}).

These three postulates of gravity will help him measure the trajectories of comets, tides, equinoxes and other phenomena. His arguments shattered the last doubts about the heliocentric model and the scientific world accepted the fact that the Earth is not the universal center.

The famous tree that inspired Newton to think about gravity

Everyone knows that Newton came to his conclusions about gravity thanks to the incident of an apple falling on his head. Many people think that this is just a comic retelling, and the scientist deduced the formula gradually. But Newton’s diary entries and retellings of his contemporaries speak in favor of the apple breakthrough.

Shape of the Earth

Isaac Newton believed that our planet Earth was formed in the form of an oblate spheroid. Later, the hunch would be confirmed, but in his time it was important information that helped to transfer much of the scientific world from the Cartesian system to Newtonian mechanics.

In the mathematical field, he generalized the binomial theorem, investigated power series, derived his own method for approximating the roots of a function, and divided most of the curved cubic planes into classes. He also shared developments with Gottfried Leibniz.

His discoveries were breakthroughs in physics, mathematics and astronomy, helping to understand the structure of space with the help of formulas.

Optics

In 1666 he became more and more interested in optics. It all started with studying the properties of light, which he measured through a prism. In 1670-1672. investigated the refraction of light, showing how a multi-colored spectrum is rebuilt into a single white light using a lens and a second prism.

Sun rays pass through a prism

As a result, Newton realized that the color is formed due to the interaction of objects initially colored. In addition, I noticed that the lens of any instrument suffers due to light scattering (chromatic aberration). He managed to solve problems with a telescope with a mirror. His invention is considered the first model of a reflecting telescope.

In addition…

He is also responsible for the formulation of the empirical law of cooling and the study of the speed of sound. From his filing, the term «Newtonian fluid» appeared — a description of any fluid where viscous stresses are linearly proportional to the rate of its transformation.

A large amount of time Newton devoted to the study of not only scientific postulates, but also biblical chronology and took root in alchemy. However, many works appeared only after the death of the scientist. So Isaac Newton was remembered not only as a talented physicist, but also a philosopher.

What do we owe to Isaac Newton? His ideas were breakthrough not only for that time, but also served as starting points for all subsequent scientists. He prepared fertile ground for new discoveries and inspired the exploration of this world.

It is not surprising that Isaac Newton had followers who developed his ideas and theories.

If you are interested in learning more, then the site has a biography of Isaac Newton, which presents the date of birth and death (in the new and old style), the most important discoveries, as well as interesting facts about the greatest physicist.

Absolute temperature

Solar energy

Thermal transfer

Source: https://v-kosmose.com/fizika/chto-otkryil-isaak-nyuton/

Vibrant color circles of Newton, Goethe and other color theorists (1665-1810)

Thinkers of the 17th and 18th centuries developed many theories of color and light. Artists, chemists, cartographers, poets and even entomologists… everyone seemed to have their own color theory.

And the cascade of discoveries (diffraction, interference, double refraction) only exacerbated the general discord.

Rene Descartes conducted and described the study of optics, Isaac Newton issued his famous work “Optics or a treatise on the reflections, refractions, bendings and colors of light”, Goethe also had his own views on the nature and perception of color.

In 1672 Newton wrote the revolutionary New Theory of Light and Colors. In it, he outlined his experiments with prisms, which proved that white light consists of seven different colors. Scientists debated Newton’s theory in the 19th century, eventually finding it convincing.

Goethe’s color wheel from Towards a Theory of Colours, with which he illustrated the chapter «The Allegorical, Symbolic and Mystical Use of Colour», 1809.

Among those who disagreed with the Newtonian theory was the poet, philosopher and naturalist Johann Wolfgang Goethe. He expressed his opinion in 1809Towards a Theory of Color, illustrated with neat hand-drawn color charts and circles (above). Although erroneous, Goethe’s views have acquired historical significance mainly in the field of physiology and psychology of vision.

From Newton’s time onwards, color theorists developed concepts with color wheels, the first of which is credited to Newton in 1704 (figure above).

Newton’s color wheel had «red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet in a natural sequence on a spinning disc».

Four years later, the artist Claude Boutet created his 7-color and 12-color circles (below), based on Newtonian theories. Artists, chemists, cartographers, poets and even entomologists…

everyone seemed to have a theory of color, usually accompanied by elaborate color schemes and diagrams.

7-color and 12-color circles by Claude Boutet, 1708.

The color wheel has served as one of many forms of representation of often contrasting theories. For example, Jacques-Fabien Gautier claimed that the primary colors were black and white.

But the wheel and Newton’s basic ideas about it, almost unchanged, formed the basis of the correct theory of colors.

A 1766 wheel by British entomologist Moses Harris showing Newton’s 7-color scheme, simplified to 6 primary and secondary colors with tertiary gradations in between. Another entomologist, Johann Ignaz Schiffermüller, depicted a 12-colored wheel (below).

Moses Harris introduced the «Natural Color System» and his color wheel in 1766.

Austrian entomologist Johann Ignaz Schiffermüller’s color wheel from An Attempt to Systematize Colors, 1772.

German ornithologist, entomologist, botanist and inventor Jakob Schaeffer introduced the palette in the form of a family tree in the General Color Project, 1769. He divided the colors into several families.

1746 illustration of Jacques-Fabien Gauthier’s theory that the primary colors are black and white and red, yellow and blue are secondary.

The color is always representative. In Newton’s original color wheel, «musical notes were associated with color.» By the end of the 18th century, color theory was increasingly associated with psychological theories and typologies, as in the wheel above entitled «Rose of Temperaments».

It was created by Goethe and Friedrich Schiller in 1789 to illustrate «man’s occupations and traits of his character».

The Public Domain Review lists them: «tyrants, heroes, adventurers, hedonists, lovers, poets, orators, historians, educators, philosophers, pedants, rulers», divided into four temperament types of humoral theory.

Rose of Temperaments by Goethe and Schiller, 1798/1799.

The transition from this psychologism of color to that used by advertisers and commercial designers in the 20th century, or from the color theories of artists and scientists to abstract expressionism, the Bauhaus school, chemists and photographers who recreated the colors of the world on film, turned out to be quite brief.

Color Ball by Philipp Otto Runge, 1810.

Source: https://cameralabs.org/11841-yarkie-tsvetovye-krugi-nyutona-gjote-i-drugikh-teoretikov-tsveta-1665-1810

Newton Isaac

Other famous scientists

Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Eve 1642 in the village of Woolsthorpe in Lincolnshire. His father died before the birth of his son.

Newton’s mother, nee Aiskof, gave birth prematurely soon after her husband’s death, and the newborn Isaac was strikingly small and frail. They thought that the baby would not survive.

Newton, however, lived to a ripe old age and always, with the exception of short-term disorders and one serious illness, was distinguished by good health.

In terms of property status, the Newton family belonged to the number of farmers of the middle class. Little Isaac spent the first three years of his life exclusively in the care of his mother. But, having remarried to the priest Smith, the mother entrusted the child to her grandmother, her mother.

When Isaac grew up, he was placed in an elementary school. Upon reaching the age of twelve, the boy began to attend a public school in Grantham. He was placed in an apartment with the pharmacist Clark, where he lived intermittently for about six years.

Life at the pharmacist first aroused in him a desire to study chemistry; as for school science, it was not given to Newton. In all likelihood, the main fault in this case must be attributed to the inability of the teachers.

From childhood, the future scientist loved to build various mechanical devices — and forever remained, first of all, a mechanic.

Portrait by G. Kneller (1689)

Living with Clark, Isaac managed to prepare for university studies. On June 5, 1660, when Newton was not yet eighteen years old, he was admitted to the college of the Trinity.

The University of Cambridge was at that time one of the best in Europe, where philological and mathematical sciences flourished equally. Newton turned his main attention to mathematics. Little is known about Newton’s first three years at Cambridge.

According to the books of the university, in 1661 he was a «subsizer». This was the name of the poor students who did not have the means to pay for their studies and were not yet sufficiently prepared to listen to a real university course.

They attended some lectures and at the same time had to serve the richer ones. It was not until 1664 that Newton became a real student; in 1665 he received the degree of Bachelor of Fine Arts (verbal sciences).

His first scientific experiments are related to the study of light. As a result of many years of work, Newton found that a white sunbeam is a mixture of many colors. The scientist proved that with the help of a prism, white color can be decomposed into its constituent colors.

Studying the refraction of light in thin films, Newton observed a diffraction pattern, called «Newton’s rings».

The significance of this discovery was fully realized only in the second half of the 19th century, when spectral analysis arose on its basis — a new method that made it possible to study the chemical composition of even stars far from the Earth.

In 1666, an epidemic broke out in Cambridge, which, according to the custom of the time, was considered a plague, and Newton retired to his Woolsthorpe.

Here, in the silence of the countryside, having no books or instruments at hand, living an almost reclusive life, the twenty-four-year-old Newton indulged in deep philosophical reflections.

Their fruit was the most brilliant of his discoveries — the doctrine of universal gravitation.

It was a summer day. Newton liked to meditate, sitting in the garden, in the open air. Tradition reports that Newton’s thoughts were interrupted by the fall of an overflowing apple. The famous apple tree was kept for a long time as a warning to posterity, later withered, was cut down and turned into a historical monument in the form of a bench.

Newton has been thinking about the laws of falling bodies for a long time, and it is quite possible that the fall of an apple led him to think again. Newton himself wrote many years later that he derived the mathematical formula expressing the law of universal gravitation from studying the famous laws of Kepler.

Woolsthorpe. The house where Newton was born

Newton could never develop and prove his brilliant idea if he did not have a powerful mathematical method that neither Hooke nor any of Newton’s predecessors knew — this is the analysis of infinitesimal quantities, known now under the name of differential and integral calculus. Long before Newton, many philosophers and mathematicians dealt with the question of infinitesimals, but limited themselves to only the most elementary conclusions.

In 1669, Newton was already a professor of mathematics at this university, having inherited the chair, which was headed by the famous mathematician of the time, Isaac Barrow.

It was there that Newton made his first major discovery. Almost simultaneously with the German mathematician Leibniz, he created the most important branches of mathematics — differential and integral calculus.

But Newton’s discoveries were not only about mathematics.

Newton created his method based on previous discoveries made by him in the field of analysis, but in the most important issue he turned to the help of geometry and mechanics.

Exactly when Newton discovered his new method is not exactly known. Due to the close connection of this method with the theory of gravitation, one should think that it was developed by Newton between 1666 and 1669 and, in any case, before the first discoveries made in this area by Leibniz.

Returning to Cambridge, Newton took up research and teaching.

From 1669 to 1671 he lectured in which he presented his main discoveries regarding the analysis of light rays; but none of his scientific papers have yet been published.

Newton was still working on improving optical mirrors. Gregory’s reflecting telescope with a hole in the middle of the objective mirror did not satisfy Newton.

«The disadvantages of this telescope,» he says, «seemed to me very significant, and I found it necessary to change the design, placing the eyepiece on the side of the tube. »

Trinity College Clock Tower

However, there was still much work to be done in the field of telescope technology. Newton first tried to grind magnifying glasses, but after discoveries made by him regarding the decomposition of light rays, he abandoned the idea of improving refracting telescopes and took up grinding concave mirrors.

The telescope made by Newton can rightfully be considered the first reflecting telescope. Then the scientist made by hand another telescope of larger dimensions and better quality.

Finally, the Royal Society of London found out about these telescopes, which turned to Newton through their secretary Oldenburg with a request to provide details of the invention.

In 1670, Newton donated his telescope to Oldenburg — a very important event in his life, since this instrument first made Newton’s name known to the entire scientific world of that time.

At the end of 1670, Newton was elected to the Royal Society of London.

In 1678, the secretary of the Royal Society of London, Oldenburg, who treated Newton with extreme friendliness and with the greatest respect, died. His place was taken by Hooke, although envious of Newton, but involuntarily recognizing his genius.

It should be noted that Hooke played a part in Newton’s outstanding discoveries. Newton believed that a falling body, due to the combination of its motion with the motion of the Earth, would describe a helical line.

Hooke showed that a helical line is obtained only if air resistance is taken into account and that in a vacuum the movement must be elliptical — we are talking about true movement, that is, such that we could observe if we ourselves did not participate in the motion of the globe.

After checking Hooke’s conclusions, Newton became convinced that a body thrown with sufficient speed, being at the same time under the influence of the earth’s gravity, can indeed describe an elliptical path.

Reflecting on this subject, Newton discovered the famous theorem, according to which a body under the influence of an attractive force, similar to the force of gravity, always describes a conic section, that is, one of the curves obtained when a cone is intersected by a plane (ellipse, hyperbola , a parabola, and in special cases a circle and a straight line). More than that. Newton found that the center of attraction, that is, the point at which the action of all the attractive forces acting on the moving point is concentrated, is at the focus of the described curve. Thus, the center of the Sun is (approximately) in the general focus of the ellipses described by the planets.

Having achieved such results, Newton immediately saw that he had deduced theoretically, that is, based on the principles of rational mechanics, one of Kepler’s laws, which says that the centers of the planets describe ellipses and that the center of the Sun is at the focus of their orbits. But Newton was not satisfied with this basic agreement between theory and observation. He wanted to see if it was really possible with the help of theory to calculate the elements of planetary orbits, that is, to predict all the details of planetary movements.

Life story of Isaac Newton

Wanting to make sure that the force of gravity, which makes bodies fall to the Earth, is really identical to the force that keeps the Moon in its orbit, Newton began to calculate, but, having no books at hand, he used only the roughest data. The calculation showed that with such numerical data, the force of the earth’s gravity is greater than the force holding the Moon in its orbit by one sixth, and as if there is some reason that counteracts the movement of the Moon.

As soon as Newton found out about the measurement of the meridian, made by the French scientist Picard, he immediately made new calculations and, to his greatest joy, was convinced that his old views were completely confirmed. The force that causes bodies to fall to the Earth turned out to be exactly equal to that which controls the movement of the Moon.

Isaac Barrow. Statue at Trinity College

This conclusion was the highest triumph for Newton. Now his words «Genius is the patience of thought concentrated in a certain direction» were fully justified. All his deep hypotheses, long-term calculations turned out to be correct.

Now he is completely and finally convinced of the possibility of creating an entire system of the universe based on one simple and great beginning. All the most complex movements of the moon, planets and even comets wandering through the sky became quite clear to him.

It became possible to scientifically predict the movements of all the bodies of the solar system, and perhaps the Sun itself, and even stars and star systems.

At the end of 1683, Newton finally communicated to the Royal Society the basic principles of his system, setting them out in the form of a series of theorems on the motion of the planets. Newton presented his main conclusions in a fundamental work called «The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy». Before the end of April 1686, the first two parts of his book were ready and sent to London.

In the field of mechanics, Newton not only developed the positions of Galileo and other scientists, but also gave new principles, not to mention many remarkable individual theorems.

According to Newton himself, even Galileo established the principles that Newton called «the first two laws of motion.» Newton formulates these laws as follows:

I. Every body is in a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion until some force acts on it and forces it to change this state.

Revered descendant of Newton’s Apple Tree. Cambridge Botanic Gardens

II. The change in motion is proportional to the driving force and is directed along the straight line along which the given force acts.

In addition to these two laws, Newton formulated a third law of motion, expressing it as III. The action is always equal and directly opposite to the reaction, that is, the actions of two bodies on each other are always equal and directed in opposite directions.

By establishing the general laws of motion. Newton deduced from them many corollaries and theorems that allowed him to bring theoretical mechanics to a high degree of perfection. With the help of these theoretical principles, he deduces his law of gravitation in detail from Kepler’s laws and then solves the inverse problem, that is, shows what the motion of the planets should be if we accept the law of gravitation as proven.

Newton’s discovery led to the creation of a new picture of the world, according to which all planets located at colossal distances from each other turn out to be connected into one system. With this law, Newton laid the foundation for a new branch of astronomy — celestial mechanics, which today studies the motion of the planets and allows you to calculate their position in space.

Newton was able to calculate the orbits along which the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn move, and, using these data, determine the force with which the Earth attracts the Moon. In turn, all these data will be used in future near-Earth space flights.

Newton’s reflector

Newton’s further research allowed him to determine the mass and density of the planets and the Sun itself. Newton showed that the density of the Sun is four times less than the density of the Earth, and the average density of the Earth is approximately equal to the density of granite and, in general, the heaviest rocks. Regarding the planets, Newton found that the planets closest to the Sun are the most dense.

Next, Newton proceeded to calculate the figure of the globe. He showed that the Earth has a spheroidal shape, namely, it is like a ball, expanded at the equator and flattened at the poles.

The scientist proved the dependence of the tides on the combined action of the Moon and the Sun on the waters of the seas and oceans.

As for the actual so-called «celestial mechanics», Newton not only advanced, but, one might say, created this science, since before him there were only a number of empirical data.

The theory of motion of comets given by Newton, which he considered insufficiently developed and published only at the insistence of Halley, is very curious.

Thanks to Newton’s calculations, Halley was able to predict the appearance of a huge comet, which actually appeared in the sky in 1759. It was named Halley’s comet.

In 1842, the famous German astronomer Bessel, based on Newton’s law, predicted the existence of an invisible companion around the star Sirius. The discovery of this satellite 10 years later was proof that the law of universal gravitation not only operates in the solar system, but is also one of the general laws of the universe.

Title page of Newton’s Elements

Source: https://tunnel. ru/post-nyuton-isaak

William Blake on roses, foxes, eternity and mercy

“Truth cannot be told in such a way that it is understood; you need to believe in it.» William Blake was an artist and wordsmith, he printed books with his own texts and illustrations — today they would be called «art books». Arthive recalls the apt sayings and illustrations of the British romantic on his memorial day: Blake passed away at exactly 190 years ago.

A fragment of the work of William Blake «The Creator of the Universe»

William Blake (Eng. William Blake, November 28, 1757, London — August 12, 1827, London) — English artist, engraver, poet, philosopher, mystic . He studied the art of drawing and engraving with the London master J. Besire, studied at the Academy of Arts.

He invented illuminated printing — engravings with images and texts explaining them. The artist Blake is characterized by a craving for allegorism, visionary fantasy, mystical symbolism. He was fond of biblical mythology, drew illustrations for the Bible and created his own mythology, combining in it biblical stories, mystical knowledge of the Middle Ages and the achievements of science of those years.

William Blake’s paintings represent his original perception of the world, where fantasy and reality are merged. Blake denies the classical composition and uses bold solutions, playing with lines and shapes. Few contemporaries accepted Blake’s original work, and only two centuries later he overtook a well-deserved success.

Blake’s paintings and prints had a huge impact on the development of Art Nouveau.

Dante running from the three beasts. Illustrations for The Divine Comedy, 1827 My angel, leaning over the cradle, Said: “Live in the world, creature, Full of joy, fun,

But don’t expect help from anyone.»

Isaac Newton, 1805— What, maestro, is the most important thing in a portrait painter? He replied: — Special qualities of the brush. — He, diligently cleaning the palette, Repeated: — Of course, the quality of the brush. — And what else? — Becoming a little eloquent,

He exclaimed: — High quality brush! Fly

I am also a fly: My age is short. And what are you, a fly,

Not a man?

Here I am playing, I sing until I am blind

A hand will sweep me away.

If there is strength in thought, And life, and light, And there is a grave,

Where there is no thought, —

So let me die Or live, — A happy fly

I call myself.

Good and evil angel, 1805 Through the eye, and not through the eye, the mind knows how to look at the world, Because the mortal eye

You are led astray.

***God comes with a bright lightInto the souls of people dressed in darkness. Who is accustomed to the light of day,

The human sees the face.

Nebuchadnezzar, 1805

It is not a sin if you are moved by passions, But it is bad to be in their power.

***—My son, learn humility from the sheep!..

—I’m afraid that you will cut my hair, father!

The rose has a thorn for the enemy, And the lamb has horns. But a pure lily is so unarmed,

And, apart from love, she doesn’t need anything.

You can trace the silk thread of happiness in sorrow.

***Don’t expect to believe you

Not believing his eyes.

Bible illustrations. The ghost of Samuel that appeared to Saul, 1800

I have a wealth of thoughts, Delights of the spirit, sound mind, My beloved wife is with me. But I am poor in the earthly treasury.

I am before God day and night. He never takes his eyes off me. But the devil is also inseparable: My purse is entrusted to him. ..

So, I must not be rich. Why pray and for what? I have few desires, And I pray to God for others.

Let the evil devil give me Clothes, food of the worst sort, — I live well even in need… But still, devil, serve properly!

There would hardly be pity on earth, If we didn’t drive our neighbors to madness. And people wouldn’t know mercy,

If others were as happy as we are.

Book of Job. Behemoth and Leviathan, 1821 The fox blames the trap, not herself. The crow would like everything in the world to be black, the owl would like everything to be white. The head is sublime, the heart is pathos, the sexual sphere is beauty, arms, legs are proportions.

Calculation is a rich and ugly old maid who is dragged along by impotence. If others were not fools, we would be them. He whose face does not radiate light will never be a star. Eternity is in love with the creations of time. Joys fertilize. Sorrows are born.

One thought fills infinity.

Creator of the universe. Frontispiece to the poem «Europe: Prophecy», 1794 Seeing eternity in an instant, A vast world in a grain of sand, Infinity in a single handful

And the sky is in a flower cup.

Citation source: William Blake, translated by S. Marshak.

Composition (biography) — Isaac Newton
Since birth, Newton has not been lucky. He turned out to be not only a posthumous child, although he was in a hurry — he was born prematurely. He was so small that you could bathe him in a large beer mug. It was clear that the little man who had just appeared was not a tenant in this world … At an early age, Newton grew up weak, shy, avoided noisy children’s games.

The weak boy looked wistfully around the most picturesque surroundings of Woolsthorpe, and each time his gaze rested on the steeple of the steeple of the church of North Witham — the church near which his mother now lived and in which his stepfather served. The sight of this bell tower poisoned him the joy of living on a piece of land intended only for one thing — enjoying life.

Nothing pleased him, from the age of two he felt like a complete orphan, abandoned by his mother. Suffering overwhelmed his tender soul. They turned into dull anger, hatred, even desire and direct threats to burn down the house of Barnaba Smith, his stepfather, along with its inhabitants.

And sometimes he thought that only death could stop his anguish and suffering. And longing for death, Isaac was handed over to the hands of a fifty-year-old grandmother.

Grandmother told him about the world around him — about snakes that lull larks to sleep with their poison and then consume them, about rains that bring grasshoppers and frogs, about the old beliefs of the Lincolnshire land.

But — a strange thing! — while ordinary children have the sweetest childhood memories associated with grandmothers, Isaac never showed much tenderness for his ancestor. Even her death left him indifferent. Apparently, no one could ever replace his father and mother.

His personality was broken, and many researchers of Newton’s work attribute to him, and not without reason, the properties of an extreme neurotic Little Isaac constantly felt lonely, he did not play with his peers, not only because he did not want to, but also because they were not very well disposed towards it.

It was not interesting with him — he always won in checkers and other games that require quick wits. He annoyed them by inventing new games or new rules for old games to compensate for his bodily weakness. And they soon realized his mental superiority and did not forgive him. Young Newton was not destined to make friends with any of these children, he never ran in a cheerful gang, he was not a participant in noisy children’s games. Thus began his loneliness — from birth to death ….

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Composition (biography) — Joan of Arc

Despite Isaac’s obvious abilities, he did not shine with success in teaching. He was in second to last place on the academic record, ahead of only one obvious idiot. Next up on the list was Arthur Storer, the son of Miss Storer, with whom Isaac lived. Newton hated Arthur terribly and once, according to Newton himself, beat him.

This story would not be of any significant interest if it did not have its continuation — not satisfied with the physical triumph over Arthur Storer, Newton decided to bypass him in the academic record, since he was right in front of him.

Having got carried away, he easily, simply in the easiest way, completely without effort, bypassed not only Arthur, but also all the other students of the class Strange ways of fate and whimsical! The unsuccessful Newton is forced, for reasons the seriousness of which is visible only to him, at the age of twelve, to devote more time to studies, previously despised, and thereby prepare for himself a special — completely different fate. Now teaching is a spiritual need, school success is essential, and the first place in the list of students is coveted. Everything is accessible to passion, and here Isaac is the best student of the school. The moment came when he himself and many others were suddenly amazed: — How could this happen? — So fast! Maybe this is a gift? — Isaac himself was amazed at how easily he managed to become the first. And delight crept into his soul: — Where did this come from ?! Maybe this is a gift from God?

The plots of young Newton’s drawings are able to convey to us, descendants, the echoes of his inner world, his sympathies and hobbies. The peculiar «I» of Newton, according to psychologists, is manifested even in his Latin texts. From his exercises, many phrases have been preserved that testify to the complex, turbulent consciousness of the boy.

The world of anxiety, destruction, doom emerges from the pages of the notebook for Latin exercises.

From the world of Latin exercises — from the world of young Newton? — all vain things are banished: his truths are the truths of an orthodox puritan: “The better the player, the worse the person”, “What else does it mean to dance, how not to make a fool of yourself?” , «We most want what will hurt us the most», «He doesn’t even have money to buy a rope to hang himself. »

Sometimes distrust and suspicion sound in his statements: “I must be sure that he will not harm me”, “You are fooling me”, “You will never make me believe in this fairy tale”.

I – motives of loneliness: “No one understands me”, “What will become of me?” , «I want to end it all», «I’m not capable of anything but tears», «I don’t know what to do.» Frank Manuel, who has gleaned all these maxims from Newton’s Latin exercises, is amazed that positive feelings are completely absent here. Never appears, for example, the word «love». There are almost no expressions of joy, desire. Here is a world of denial and prohibition, punishment and loneliness.

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“A black man, or I am poor Coco Dzhugashvili”

This is a world of arrogant puritanical values that by that time had become part of Newton’s existence: cruel self-control, solidity, a penchant for order, striving to become above everyone with the help of his virtues , above all.

An analysis of a huge amount of educational literature reveals to us the same atmosphere of unconscious fear, anxiety, uncertainty, descriptions of all sorts of human troubles, all the misfortunes that can happen in this coming life with the indispensable participation of the devil.

Violation of the strict rules of puritan thinking and action inevitably led to painful consequences, and Newton accepted this simple but penetrating thesis from his youth, which took possession of him for the rest of his life.

It is possible, of course, that in the case of Newton this thesis fell on a special fertile ground — because of his weakness and initial deprivation of fate. All his life, Newton did not part with either the Bible or the collections of Greek myths and thus combined the incompatible, mixing them in his mind and imagination.

In the meantime, he was still a boy, vulnerable and self-affirming, intensely looking for his place not yet in history and society, but only trying to win the understanding of his peers … 5. While young Isaac was already 17 years old, his mother Anna decided to make him the true owner of his property, and for this Isaac was required to leave the Royal School.

However, he did not express the slightest regret at parting with this respectable institution and with Grantham. On market days, his mother sent him with a faithful servant to sell the products of the estate and purchase the necessary city goods.

She secretly hoped that he would be fascinated by the interesting business of trading and settlements, making profit.

Isaac usually asked his servant to leave him somewhere, usually at the foot of Spittlegay Hill in the shade of someone else’s fence, where he could play with his toys or read a book without interference. Newton violently resists fate, pushing him to the master’s craft.

He is not attracted by power, wealth, or romance. Now he yearns for the school science that came so easily to him, he clearly begins to feel his destiny 6 ….

Just yesterday, a timid village boy with feelings filled with the quiet voices of rural life, just yesterday an indecisive and suspicious young man who spent his days in the solitude of an attic filled with old books, suddenly finds himself in the center of the busy life of a large university city. Lenten puritanical boredom and anxious idleness that dominated Cambridge were replaced by a secret, but universal revelry, in which wealthy «Westminsterians» were actively involved.

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Composition (biography) — Nikitin Athanasius

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Introduction

Isaac Newton — English mathematician and naturalist, mechanic, astronomer and physicist, founder of classical physics. The role of Newton’s discoveries for the history of science is difficult to overestimate.

It is no coincidence that the tree in the garden of the family estate of the Newton family in Vulsthor, not far from Cambridge, from where the famous apple fell, was a museum exhibit for many years, until it was broken by a storm.

But, perhaps even brighter /> the meaning of Newton /> is conveyed by an epigram of the 18th century.

This world was shrouded in deep darkness.

Let there be light! And here comes Newton.

This is what Newton himself said about his work: “I don’t know how the world will look at me, but to myself I imagine myself as a boy playing on the seashore and admiring when he sometimes manages to find a smoother than ordinary pebble or a beautiful shell; meanwhile, a vast ocean of hidden truth stretches out before me.”

For Newton, according to Einstein, “Nature was an open book, the writings of which he read without difficulty.

The concepts he used to arrange the data of experience seemed to flow spontaneously from experience, from the elegant experiments he carefully described in great detail and arranged in order like toys.

In one person he combined an experimenter, a theoretician, a master and, to no lesser extent, an artist of the word. He appears before us strong, confident and alone.

Chapter 1. Youth

Born December 25, 1642 in Woolsthorpe (Lincolnshire). Newton’s father died before he was born, and when the boy was two years old, his mother remarried. Isaac was brought up by his maternal grandmother. At the age of 10, Newton was sent to a classical school in Grantham.

During these years he lived in the home of the apothecary Clark, from where, apparently, he took out a lifelong interest in various chemical manipulations. Newton grew up as a quiet boy who did not delve too deeply into books, who, however, was very fond of doing something with his own hands.

He made several sundials, toy watermills, water clocks, a mechanical carriage and kites with lanterns attached to their tails. But at school, by his own admission, Newton was very inattentive.

In 1656 Newton’s mother, after the death of her second husband, returned to Woolsthorpe and took her son out of school with the intention of making him a farmer. However, he showed no inclination towards farming.

Yielding to the persistent persuasion of the teacher at Grantham School, the mother finally allowed her son to prepare for admission to the University of Cambridge. In June 1661, Newton was admitted to Trinity College as a subsizer — a student whose duties included serving the college teachers.

From Newton’s notebooks of that period it is clear that he studied arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, astronomy and optics. Undoubtedly, communication with the outstanding mathematician and theologian I. Barrow became a great stimulus for him. In January 1665 Newton received his bachelor’s degree.

By that time, Newton had thoroughly advanced in the development of the «method of fluxions» (analysis of infinitesimals).

Chapter 2. Experiments of a scientist

When the plague broke out in Cambridge, Newton returned to Woolsthorpe, where he stayed for almost two years. It was during this period that he wrote down his first thoughts on universal gravitation. According to Newton, the impulse to think about gravity was an apple that fell in front of his eyes in the garden.

As is clear from the recording of a conversation with Newton in old age, at that time he was trying to determine what kind of forces could keep the Moon in its orbit. The fall of the apple led him to the idea that perhaps the same force of gravity acts on the apple.

He checked his guess by estimating what the force of attraction should be, based on the hypothesis that it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (this is precisely the force of attraction between the Sun and the planets).

In Woolstorpe, Newton set up the first experiments on the study of light. At that time, white light was considered homogeneous. However, experiments with a prism immediately showed that a beam of sunlight passing through it unfolds into a multi-colored strip (spectrum).

Newton’s conclusions, verified with the help of ingenious experiments, boiled down to the following: sunlight is a combination of rays of all colors, these rays themselves are monochromatic, or, as the scientist said, «homogeneous», and are separated because they have different refractions.

October 1667, after returning to Cambridge, Newton was elected a junior member of Trinity College; six months later he became one of the senior members and soon received his master’s degree.

The very first experiments with prisms convinced him that further improvement of the telescope was limited not so much by the difficulties of turning lenses, but by the different refraction of rays of different colors, which made it impossible to focus a beam of white light at one point.

Chromatic aberration is caused by the difference in the angles that light rays of different colors and therefore different wavelengths deviate when passing through a lens.

Today, chromatic aberration is corrected by selecting lenses made from glasses with different refractive indices (such combinations of lenses are called achromats), but in Newton’s time this method had not yet been invented. Newton turned to the only practically possible solution — the construction of a mirror telescope (reflecting telescope). The scheme of such a telescope was proposed in 1663 by the Scottish mathematician J. Gregory, but Newton was the first to build it in 1668.

B1669Mr. Newton gave Barrow the manuscript known by the abbreviated Latin title On Analysis . Thanks to Barrow, this work became known to several leading mathematicians in Great Britain and continental Europe, but was published only in 1711. By the end of 1669, Barrow left the chair at Cambridge University and used all his influence so that Newton became his successor.

In 1671, the Royal Society certified Newton’s priority in building a telescope by publishing a description of the instrument. Early the next year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and soon received an invitation to report on the discovery of the complex nature of white light.

The scientist’s report made a strong impression, but Newton’s views were criticized in a number of articles. Most of the objections came from continental Europe, some belonged to R. Hooke, curator of the Royal Society.

The dispute over priority reinforced the intolerance for objections so typical of Newton at the end of his life.

Chapter 3. The problem of planetary orbits

returned to the problem of planetary orbits.

The idea that the force of gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the Sun to the planets, which he tested by approximate calculations at Woolsthorpe, became the subject of much discussion.

Just such a law followed (for the simple case of a circular orbit) from Kepler’s third law, which establishes the relationship between the periods of revolution of planets around the Sun and the radii of their orbits, and the formula for the centripetal acceleration of a body moving in a circle, which H. Huygens derived in 1673.

The inverse problem — determining the orbit from the law of change of force with distance, which was the subject of discussion by Hooke, Wren and Halley — Newton solved about 1680. Newton proved the theorem that a spherically symmetrically distributed mass attracts external bodies as if all the mass were concentrated in the center.

In August 1684 Halley visited Cambridge. During a conversation about the shape of the orbit of a body moving under the action of an attractive force to a fixed center, inversely proportional to the square of the distance, Newton suggested that the orbit would have the shape of an ellipse.

During his second visit, Halley was shown a treatise on the movement, presented to the Royal Society in February 1685 at Halley’s request. This treatise on the laws of motion formed the basis of the first book of the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy .

An important role in the creation of began was played by Halley, who smoothed over the differences between Newton and Hooke, who claimed that Newton learned about the law of inverse proportionality of force to the square of distance from this, Hooke, message.

In a fit of irritation, Newton even decided to refuse to publish the third book Began , but Halley managed to persuade him not to do this. It was Halley who took upon himself all the troubles associated with the publication and paid all the costs. In the summer of 1687, Beginnings went out of print and were immediately recognized as a scientific masterpiece.

Despite the favorable reception of work, it took another fifty years for Newton’s concept to overthrow R. Descartes’ theory of vortices.

From the very beginning, Newton’s work was seen as proof of the existence of a single plan in the universe, indicating the presence of the Creator.

Later, the idea of a rigorous universal law began to be associated with materialistic and agnostic philosophy.

A few months before the publication of Began Newton became known as a champion of academic freedom.

King James II issued an order in February 1687 ordering Cambridge to award a master’s degree to a certain Benedictine monk, without requiring him to take the usual oath of allegiance and obedience. The university responded with a categorical refusal.

The Senate appointed a deputation, including Newton. After the overthrow of the king, Newton was elected a representative from the university to parliament, where he sat from January 1689 until its dissolution a year later.

While working on the problem of the motion of the Moon, the scientist entered into a correspondence with J. Flamsteed, the first Royal Astronomer. However, the relationship between Newton and Flamsteed was overshadowed by misunderstandings and quarrels.

In 1698 Newton tried to continue work on the theory of the Moon’s orbit and resumed relations with Flamsteed, but new frictions arose, and Newton accused Flamsteed of withholding part of the observations.

The enmity between Newton and Flamsteed did not stop until the latter’s death in 1719.

Chapter 4. Recognition

In 1696, through the efforts of friends who were trying to find a position for Newton in the public service, he was appointed superintendent of the Mint. This required him to stay permanently in London. Newton was entrusted with the leadership of the re-minting of English coins.

The coins then in circulation were devalued due to the fraudulent practice of chipping. It was necessary to establish the minting of new coins with a notch along the edge, having a standard mass and composition. This task, which required great technical knowledge and administrative art, was successfully solved by 1699.

At the same time, Newton was appointed director of the Mint. This well-paid knocker held for the rest of his life.

In 1701 Newton resigned from his chair at Cambridge and from his position as a member of the council of Trinity College, and in 1703 he was elected president of the Royal Society. In 1704, after the death of his main opponent, Hooke, Newton published his second fundamental work — Optics . In 1717 the second edition was published with a special supplement containing general considerations in the form Questions .

Newton was knighted in 1705. By that time, he had become the recognized head of not only British but also European scientists. In the last two decades of his life, Newton prepared the second and third editions of Beginnings (1713, 1726). The second and third editions of Optics (1717,1721) have also been published.

In the same years, Newton became involved in a long dispute with H. Leibniz about the priority in the creation of mathematical analysis.

The dispute, continued after the death of Leibniz by his supporters, filled the last years of Newton’s life with bitterness and weakened the scientific ties between Great Britain and continental Europe, negatively affecting the development of mathematical science.

Conclusion

Newton’s fame is inextricably linked with his priority in the systematic application of mathematical methods to the study of nature, as well as in the discovery of the law of gravity.

Newton strengthened the foundations of dynamics as a reliable support for the mechanical picture of the world by applying its laws to celestial phenomena.

Newton’s achievements in the application of infinite series and in differential and integral calculus far exceed anything that was done before him, and therefore Newton is considered the founder of these methods of analysis.

As for the influence on the development of physical science, it is difficult to underestimate it. Only by the 20th century. the basic provisions on which Newton relied demanded a radical revision. The revision led to the creation of the theory of relativity and quantum theory. Newton also wrote numerous works on theology, chronology, alchemy and chemistry.

In 1725 Newton had to leave London and move to Kensington. Newton died in Kensington on March 20, 1727.

References

History of physics. T. 1. M., 1956.

2. Vavilov S.I. Isaac Newton. M., 1961.

Source: https://ronl.org/sochineniya/istoriya/111295/

Isaac Newton biography briefly for children — the most important discoveries and interesting facts from the life of a physicist

On the statue of sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), erected at Trinity College, Cambridge, is engraved with the inscription «In his mind he surpassed the human race. »

Today’s publication contains brief biographical information about the life path and scientific achievements of the great scientist. We will find out when and where Isaac Newton lived, in which country he was born, as well as some interesting facts about him.

Childhood and adolescence

Isaac Newton was born December 25, 1642 (or January 4, 1643 in the Gregorian calendar) in the village of Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire.

Young Isaac, according to contemporaries, was distinguished by a gloomy, reserved character. He preferred reading books and making primitive technical toys to boyish pranks and pranks.

When Isaac was 12 years old, he entered Grantham School. The extraordinary abilities of the future scientist were discovered there.

In 1659, at the urging of his mother, Newton was forced to return home to farm. But thanks to the efforts of teachers who were able to see the future genius, he returned to school. In 1661, Newton continued his education at the University of Cambridge.

Interesting facts

At the very beginning of his schooling, Newton was considered a very mediocre, almost the worst student. The moral trauma forced him to break out into the best when he was beaten by his tall and much stronger classmate.

In the last years of his life, the great scientist wrote a certain book, which, in his opinion, was to become a kind of revelation. Unfortunately, the manuscripts are on fire. Due to the fault of the scientist’s beloved dog, which overturned the lamp, the book disappeared in the fire.

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College education

In April 1664, Newton successfully passed his examinations and acquired a higher student grade. During his studies, he was actively interested in the works of G. Galileo, N. Copernicus, as well as the atomistic theory of Gassendi.

In the spring of 1663, lectures by I. Barrow began at the new mathematical department. The famous mathematician and prominent scientist later became a close friend of Newton. It was thanks to him that Isaac’s interest in mathematics increased.

While studying in college, Newton came up with his basic mathematical method — expanding a function into an infinite series. At the end of the same year, I. Newton received a bachelor’s degree.

Works in the field of mathematics

Mathematics for N. was Ch. tool in physics. research; he believed that the concepts of mathematics arise as abstractions of the phenomena and processes of the real world. The development of N. differential and integral calculus was an important stage in the development of mathematics. Main ideas of calculus fluxes were developed by N. in 1665–66 under the influence of his predecessors and contemporaries.

Title page of the first edition of the work «Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy» (1687).

The initial concepts and terminology of the method of fluxions reflected the influence of ideas developed by a number of scientists of the 17th century. — B. Cavalieri, P. Fermat, J. Vallis; in these concepts, the connection between the mathematical and mechanical research. The concept of continuous mathematical. the magnitude of N. introduced as an abstraction from dec. types of continuous mechanical movement. Lines can be obtained by moving points, surfaces — by moving lines, bodies — by moving surfaces, angles — by rotating sides, etc. N. called continuous variables fluents (current values, from Latin fluo — to flow). The general argument diff. current values - fluent — for N. is «time», understood formally as a certain abstract uniformly current value, to which other dependent variables are related. A fluent is a time-varying quantity whose change can be represented by a line in Cartesian coordinates. N. called the fluent change rates fluctuations, and the infinitesimal fluent changes necessary for calculating fluences — moments (G. V. Leibniz, who achieved approximately the same results in differential and integral calculus as N., almost simultaneously and independently of him , they are called differentials). N. calculated (1669, publ. in 1711) the derivative and integral of any power function. Diff. rational, including fractional-rational functions, functions containing radicals, and some transcendental functions (logarithmic, exponential, sine, cosine, arcsine) N. expressed using infinite power series. The method of calculating and studying functions with the help of series has become of great importance for all mathematics. analysis and its applications.

I. Newton’s reflecting telescope kept in the Royal Society of London.

In con. 1660s N. formulated two DOS. mutually inverse problems of mathematics. analysis: 1) determination of the speed of movement at a given moment of time along a known path traveled (differentiation task), or determination of the relationship between fluctuations according to a given relationship between fluents; 2) determination of the path traveled in a given time by a known speed of movement (the problem of integrating a differential equation, in particular, finding the antiderivative), or determining the relationship between fluents according to a given relationship between fluxes. The method of fluxions was applied by N. to a large number of geometric. questions (tasks for tangents, curvatures, extrema, quadratures, rectifications). N. outlined, in essence, a program for constructing the method of fluxions based on the concepts of «the last relationship of vanishing quantities» or «the first relationship of nascent quantities», without giving them a formal definition and considering them as intuitively obvious. They found their rigorous justification in the concept of a limit developed by mathematicians of the 2nd floor. 18 and 19centuries (J. D’Alembert, L. Euler, O. Cauchy and others).

In con. 1660s were written and other works of N. on mathematical. analysis published much later. A method was developed for calculating the roots of an equation (Newton’s method) and one of the unconstrained minimization methods. Some mathematical N.’s discoveries became famous in the 1670s. from his manuscripts and correspondence. His works on algebra, geometry and interpolation were also of great importance. When solving many mathematical problems is used by Newton binomial.

Famous discoveries

Studying a brief biography of Isaac Newton, you should know that it was he who expounded the law of universal gravitation. Another important discovery of the scientist is the theory of the motion of celestial bodies. The 3 laws of mechanics discovered by Newton formed the basis of classical mechanics.

Newton made many discoveries in the field of optics and color theory. He developed many physical and mathematical theories. The scientific works of the outstanding scientist largely determined the time and were often incomprehensible to contemporaries.

His hypotheses regarding the oblateness of the Earth’s poles, the phenomenon of light polarization and the deflection of light in the gravitational field still surprise scientists today.

In 1668, Newton received his master’s degree. A year later he became a doctor of mathematical sciences. After he created the reflector, the forerunner of the telescope, the most important discoveries were made in astronomy.

Life and work

N. grew up in a prosperous farming family. His father died before the birth of his son, N. received his father’s name — Isaac. Mother remarried Rev. B. Smith, to whom she moved, leaving N. to be raised by her parents, M. and J. Askew. In 1661, after graduating from high school and with the support of its principal, N. was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge University, where he received a bachelor’s degree in 1665, a master’s degree in 1668, and a master’s degree in 1669.became a prof. departments of mathematics.

Sep. 1665 to March 1667 the university was closed due to the plague. Forced holidays N. spent on the estate of his mother, thinking about the basics of mathematics. analysis, developing the theory of impact and conducting research in the field of optics. In 1668 he created the first reflecting telescope, the design of which he was able to significantly improve by 1671. This invention brought him an international. fame and became the basis for election to the LKO, membership in which made it possible to publish the results of their research in 1672 in Art. «New theory of light and colors» («New theory about light and colors») in g. «Philosophical Transactions», published by LKO.

I. Newton. Portrait by J. Thornhill. 1712.

Ser. 1670s N. completely stopped the occupation of nature. sciences, refused any scientific. correspondence and contacts with colleagues in LKO, devoting himself entirely to alchemy, theology and biblical history. Being officially a member of the Anglican Church, N., however, as a result of systematic. study of the Bible, the writings of the early Church Fathers and the history of Arian disputes (see Arianism) criticized the dogma of the Trinity, believing that lat. translations of the Holy Scriptures have been distorted in favor of the Trinitarian interpretation in comparison with the Greek. originals.

The reason for returning to scientific. Classes were served by a letter received in 1679 from R. Hooke, who invited N. to take part in the discussion of the problems that occupied the LKO. Such problems, in particular, included the problem of the motion of a freely falling heavy body.

In 1684, E. Halley came to Cambridge to discuss with N. the possibility of deriving Kepler’s laws from the general principles of mechanics. N. declared that this problem had been solved by him 4 years ago, and a little later he sent Halley 9-page treatise «On the motion of bodies in orbit» («De Motu Corporum in Gyrum»). Realizing that he was dealing with a brilliant work, Halley tried to persuade N. to publish the work. However, N. did not agree to an early publication, continuing to work hard on the problem. For 3 years, a 9-page treatise has been transformed into funds. the work The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica, published in 1687), in which the laws of nature were formulated in the language of mathematics. The 1st edition of «Began …» was published in 1687, opening a new period in the history of science. B. h. Galley took upon himself the trouble of preparing the publication.

Tombstone of I. Newton in Westminster Abbey in London.

In 1689 N. was elected to Parliament for the first time (from the University of Cambridge) and sat there for a little over a year. 1690s in the life of N. were marked by a creative and general decline; he was ill a lot and completely retired from research work. However, at the turn of the 17-18 centuries. N. found himself in a new business: in 1696 he moved to London and became the caretaker of the mint, and in 1699 as its director. Such an unexpected appointment was due to the fact that N. had high-ranking patrons (among them — the future Prime Minister C. Montagu Earl of Halifax and J. Locke). In this position, N. achieved putting in order the country’s disordered financial system and overcoming the consequences of the global crisis. He spent the remaining years dealing with the affairs of the LKO and publishing his manuscripts. In 1704, a large treatise was published Optics, or A treatise of the reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colors of light, published in English, in contrast to previous works written in Latin), in 1713 the 2nd edition of «Began . ..» was prepared (the 3rd edition, the last during N.’s lifetime, was published in 1726). In 1701–02, N. again sat in parliament. In 1703 N. became president of the LKO, in 1705 he received the title of lord. Buried in Westminster Abbey.

Works in the field of optics

Main. N.’s achievements in the field of optics include: experiment. proof of the composite nature of the white color and the further indecomposability of the main. colors of the spectrum, the construction of the first reflecting telescope, the discovery of new phenomena associated with the wave nature of light (in particular, Newton’s rings), and the development of a dualistic theory of light.

N.’s interest in optical phenomena was caused by some new effects discovered in the 17th century. So, thanks to the development of typographic methods of color printing, it was experimentally established that almost any shade of color can be reproduced with three colors. It was not possible to give an explanation for this phenomenon, as well as for the effect of coloring the image in the telescope (now known as chromatic aberration).

His first optical experiments N. conducted with a triangular prism, receiving a spectral decomposition of sunlight on the vertical wall of the room. From these experiments, N. made a key conclusion that the prism does not color sunlight, but decomposes it into its components. N. believed that sunlight is a mixture of rays of different colors, and «rays that differ in color also differ in the degree of refraction,» and each color corresponds to a stream of corpuscles of a certain speed.

From the conclusion about the unambiguous dependence of the speed of corpuscles and the degree of refraction followed, in particular, the impossibility of getting rid of chromatic. aberrations in refracting telescopes, which prompted N. to create a fundamentally new design of the telescope. As a result, in 1668 N. created a reflecting telescope in which the effect of magnifying distant objects was achieved by reflecting them in a concave spherical object. mirror.

N.’s doctrine of light systematized the knowledge of that era and contributed to the rapid progress of optics. At the same time, it contained some erroneous provisions and became the subject of fierce criticism of contemporaries. So, for example, N. considered diffraction a kind of refraction and therefore denied the possibility of light entering the shadow region, believed that the change in the angle of refraction for rays of different colors does not depend on the properties of glass. The most consistent and reasoned criticism of N.’s teachings came from R. Hooke, who accurately reproduced all the experiments described by N., but offered them a different interpretation. Often the discrepancy between the theoretical the positions of Hooke and N. seemed to be an opposition to the wave and corpuscular theories of light.

Ch. the complexity of N.’s position lay in the duality of his theory. The light, he said, was at the same time like a stone thrown into the water, and the waves caused by the fall of the stone and spreading over the surface of the water. However, N. could not accept the wave theory of his opponents, because he did not see the possibility of explaining the rectilinearity of light rays within its framework (O. Fresnel succeeded much later). The contradictions between the wave and corpuscular theories of light were removed only in the 20th century. when creating quantum electrodynamics.

Personal life and character traits

Sir Isaac Newton is a complex and controversial personality. Outwardly, he was a strong man, of medium height and with wavy hair. He rarely got sick (except for poisoning during alchemical experiments) and did not wear glasses. Almost no one in his life saw him irritated or laughing. Newton was distinguished by frugality , but not by stinginess and hoarding. He showed no interest in art, sports and travel, devoting all his strength to science (although as a youngster he took up the pen, writing poetry, and also made drawings in charcoal and watercolor).

Isaac was a deeply religious person . He was distinguished by strictness towards himself and others, while at the same time he was cordial to relatives and some colleagues, but did not get close to anyone. Another touch to the portrait of the personality of the famous scientist will be that he was interested in alchemy — not for the purpose of obtaining gold, but in search of Truth .

A number of high-profile conflicts between Newton and scientists are known: with Hooke (on questions of the essence of light), Flamsteed (over the data on the observation of the Moon), with Leibniz (dispute about the primacy of the discovery of mathematical analysis).

The famous scientist was not married and left no offspring to whom he could pass on his genius gift. At the same time, it is known that when young Newton was at the pharmacist Clark’s house at school, he liked the local doctor’s sister — Miss Storey . The girl was a couple of years younger than Isaac and also lived in the family of a pharmacist. Over time, childhood affection turned into a strong feeling, but the lovers were too young and poor for marriage. Later, Newton devoted himself to science, leaving the dream of family happiness and no longer showing a romantic interest in women.

Isaac Newton invented calculus

In 1665, Newton began to develop the mathematical theory that would become calculus, the mathematical study of change. For the first time, calculus provided mathematicians with a powerful form of analysis to find the slopes of curves and the areas under curves. Today it is widely used in science, technology and economics and can solve many problems that algebra alone cannot solve. Although there was a long scientific dispute between Newton and the German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz about who invented calculus, modern historians believe that both invented it independently.

Activities at the head of the mint

In con. 17th century English the financial system was practically destroyed. Nominal price money turned out to be significantly lower than the value of the metal from which the coins were made. Smugglers took out English in large quantities to the mainland. machine-made silver coins (put into circulation after the reform of 1663) to be sold there melted down into ingots. The old hand-minted coins that remained in circulation, which did not have notches on the edge, lost weight when used (both due to edge erasure and metal theft). Trust in English currency was further undermined by a noticeable stuffing of counterfeit money. Trade in 1690s became practically impossible due to the lack of money with which it could be carried out.

To get out of the current situation, it was necessary to carry out a new large-scale monetary reform, in particular, to re-mint all silver coins, removing the one that was in circulation in the country before the reform. It was this task that was entrusted to N., who managed to successfully cope with it. Since, with the existing capacities of the mint, the re-minting of the coin should have stretched for 9years, N. insisted on the purchase of new equipment, the transition to a round-the-clock operation and the creation of additional. mints. Thus, the speed of making coins increased by 8 times. The missing silver for minting was purchased at the expense of the state. debt. In addition, N. proposed several fairly effective measures against counterfeiters.

Works in the field of mechanics

Having formulated 3 axioms of dynamics (Newton’s laws of mechanics) and supplementing them with the law of universal gravitation, N. laid the foundation for the theoretical. mechanics and predetermined the path of its development for the next 200 years. He introduced the concepts of mechanics: mass, force, momentum, etc. Mechanics, based on the provisions put forward by N., is called classical or Newtonian. Taking advantage of the geometric methods, N. showed that the trajectory of a material point in a spherically symmetric central field will be a flat curve, and the radius vector will cover equal angles in equal time intervals (i.e., Kepler’s second law will be fulfilled).

N. also considered the movement of a material point in a resisting medium, distinguishing between dry friction, in which the friction force does not depend on the speed of movement, and viscous, in which the friction force is proportional to the speed or its square. Turning from these problems to the movement of the medium as such, N. gave one of the first estimates of the speed of sound in an elastic medium, in fact laying the foundation for the physical. acoustics. At the same time, he used the analogy between the movements of an elastic medium and physical. pendulum. N. gave a new solution to the problem of isochronous oscillations of the pendulum, showing that in order for the period of the pendulum to be independent of the amplitude, the end of the pendulum must move along a cycloid.

N. conducted research on the theory of impact, which in the 17th century. considered one of the key problems of mechanics. The results achieved, in particular, allowed N. to calculate the centripetal acceleration and centrifugal force (in solving this problem, N. replaced the movement along a circle by movement along a regular polygon with elastic collisions at each vertex). Found solution allowed N. argue that Kepler’s third law will be satisfied if and only if the centrifugal force decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the center. Solutions to these and more. other problems of mechanics were published by N. in his Ch. essay «Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy».

A special place in this work was occupied by the discussion of cases when Kepler’s laws are violated: consideration of lunar variations, precession of the Earth’s orbit, non-sphericity of the Earth’s shape, etc. N.’s conclusion that due to daily rotation the Earth should be flattened from the poles, caused long and heated discussion. This conclusion was finally confirmed after meridional measurements were carried out in 1736–37 (an expedition led by P. L. Maupertuis) and the publication in 1743 of A. K. Claro’s work The Theory of the Figure of the Earth.

Isaac Newton — biography, laws of physics, family, personal life, photos and latest news

Biography

Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643 in the small British village of Woolsthorpe, located on the territory of Lincolnshire. A frail, prematurely left mother’s womb boy came into this world on the eve of the English Civil War, shortly after the death of his father and shortly before the celebration of Christmas.

The child was so weak that for a long time he was not even baptized. But still, little Isaac Newton, named after his father, survived and lived a very long life for the seventeenth century — 84 years.

Isaac Newton in his youth

The father of the future brilliant scientist was a small farmer, but quite successful and wealthy. After the death of Newton Sr., his family received several hundred acres of fields and forest land with fertile soil and an impressive sum of £500.

Isaac’s mother, Anna Ayskow, soon remarried and bore her new husband three children. Anna paid more attention to her younger offspring, and the upbringing of her first child was first taken up by Isaac’s grandmother, and then by his uncle William Ayskoe.

As a child, Newton was fond of painting, poetry, selflessly invented a water clock, a windmill, made kites. At the same time, he was still very painful, and also extremely uncommunicative: Isaac preferred his own hobbies to cheerful games with his peers.

Young physicist

When the child was sent to school, his physical weakness and poor communication skills once even caused the boy to be beaten to the point of fainting. This humiliation Newton could not bear. But, of course, he could not acquire an athletic physical form overnight, so the boy decided to amuse his self-esteem in another way.

If before this incident he studied rather poorly and obviously was not a favorite of teachers, then after that he began to seriously stand out among his classmates in terms of academic performance. Gradually, he became the best student, and even more seriously than before, he began to be interested in technology, mathematics and amazing, inexplicable natural phenomena.

Isaac Newton

When Isaac was 16 years old, his mother took him back to the estate and tried to entrust the matured eldest son with part of the household chores (Anna Ayskough’s second husband had also died by that time). However, the guy was only engaged in designing ingenious mechanisms, “swallowing” numerous books and writing poetry.

The young man’s schoolteacher, Mr. Stokes, as well as his uncle William Ayskow and acquaintance Humphrey Babington (part-time member of Cambridge Trinity College) from Grantham, where the future world-famous scientist attended school, persuaded Anna Ayskow to allow the gifted son to continue his studies . As a result of collective bargaining in 1661, Isaac completed his studies at school, after which he successfully passed the entrance exams to Cambridge University.

Starting a scientific career

As a student, Newton had the status of «sizar». This meant that he did not pay for his education, but he had to do various jobs at the university, or provide services to wealthier students. Isaac courageously endured this test, although he still did not like to feel oppressed, was unsociable and did not know how to make friends.

At that time, philosophy and natural science in the world-famous Cambridge were taught according to Aristotle, although at that time the discoveries of Galileo, the atomistic theory of Gassendi, the bold works of Copernicus, Kepler and other outstanding scientists had already been demonstrated to the world. Isaac Newton devoured all the information he could find on mathematics, astronomy, optics, phonetics, and even music theory. At the same time, he often forgot about food and sleep.

Isaac Newton studies the refraction of light

The researcher began his independent scientific activity in 1664, having compiled a list of 45 problems in human life and nature that have not yet been resolved. At the same time, fate brought the student to the gifted mathematician Isaac Barrow, who began working in the mathematics department of the college. Subsequently, Barrow became his teacher, as well as one of his few friends.

Even more interested in mathematics thanks to a gifted teacher, Newton performed the binomial expansion for an arbitrary rational exponent, which was his first brilliant discovery in the mathematical field. In the same year, Isaac received a bachelor’s degree.

Isaac Newton and Isaac Barrow

In 1665-1667, when the plague swept over England, the Great Fire of London and the extremely costly war with Holland, Newton briefly settled in Woosthorpe. During these years, he directed his main activity to the discovery of optical secrets. Trying to figure out how to rid lens telescopes of chromatic aberration, the scientist came to the study of dispersion. The essence of the experiments that Isaac set was in an effort to know the physical nature of light, and many of them are still being carried out in educational institutions.

As a result, Newton came to the corpuscular model of light, deciding that it can be considered as a stream of particles that fly out of some source of light and move in a straight line to the nearest obstacle. Although such a model cannot claim to be the ultimate objectivity, it has become one of the foundations of classical physics, without which more modern ideas about physical phenomena would not have appeared.

Law of Universal Gravitation

Around the same time, Isaac became the author of perhaps his most famous discovery: the Law of Universal Gravitation. However, these studies were published decades later, since the scientist never aspired to fame.

Among fans of collecting interesting facts, there has long been a delusion that Newton discovered this key law of classical mechanics after an apple fell on his head. In fact, Isaac systematically walked towards his discovery, which is clear from his numerous notes. The legend of the apple was popularized by the authoritative philosopher Voltaire in those days.

Scientific fame

In the late 1660s, Isaac Newton returned to Cambridge, where he received a master’s degree, his own room to live in, and even a group of young students for whom the scientist became a teacher. However, teaching was clearly not the «horse» of a gifted researcher, and the attendance of his lectures noticeably limped. At the same time, the scientist invented a reflecting telescope, which glorified him and allowed Newton to join the Royal Society of London. Through this device, many amazing astronomical discoveries were made.

Principia Mathematica

In 1687, Newton published perhaps his most important work, Principia Mathematica. The researcher had published his works before, but this one was of paramount importance: it became the basis of rational mechanics and all mathematical science. It contained the well-known law of universal gravitation, the three hitherto known laws of mechanics, without which classical physics is unthinkable, key physical concepts were introduced, and the heliocentric system of Copernicus was not questioned.

Scientist Isaac Newton

In terms of mathematical and physical level, the “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” was an order of magnitude higher than the research of all scientists who worked on this problem before Isaac Newton. There was no unproven metaphysics with lengthy reasoning, groundless laws and unclear formulations, which the works of Aristotle and Descartes so sinned.

In 1699, while Newton was in administrative positions, his system of the world began to be taught at the University of Cambridge.

Personal life

Neither then nor over the years did women show much sympathy for Newton, and he never married in his entire life.

Isaac Newton

The great scientist died in 1727, and almost all of London gathered at his funeral.

Newton’s laws

The first law of mechanics: every body is at rest or remains in a state of uniform translational motion until this state is corrected by the application of external forces.

The second law of mechanics: the change in momentum is proportional to the applied force and is carried out in the direction of its influence.

The third law of mechanics: material points interact with each other along a straight line connecting them, with forces equal in absolute value and opposite in direction.

The law of universal gravitation: the force of gravitational attraction between two material points is proportional to the product of their masses, multiplied by the gravitational constant, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between these points.

Isaac Newton — short biography

Physics

11/12/21

12 min.

English physicist Sir Isaac Newton, whose brief biography is provided here, became famous for his numerous discoveries in the field of physics, mechanics, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy.

Contents:

When and where was Isaac Newton born

Childhood of I. Newton

Where did Newton

study?

What Newton discovered

Philosophical significance of Newton’s discoveries

Books by Isaac Newton

Newton’s Inventions

Personal life of Isaac Newton

When Sir Isaac Newton died and where is buried

Interesting facts about Newton

Conclusion

Inspired by the works of Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Kepler, Euclid and Wallis, Newton made many important discoveries, laws and inventions that modern science relies on to this day.

When and where was Isaac Newton born
Isaac Newton House
Sir Isaac Newton (Sir Isaac Newton, years of life 1643 — 1727) was born December 24, 1642 (January 4, 1643 according to the new style) in the country-state of England, Lincolnshire, in the city of Woolsthorpe.

His mother went into labor prematurely and Isaac was born prematurely. At birth, the boy turned out to be so weak physically that they were even afraid to baptize him: everyone thought that he would die before he lived even a couple of years.

However, such a «prophecy» did not prevent him from living to old age and becoming a great scientist.

There is an opinion that Newton was a Jew by nationality, but this is not documented. It is known that he belonged to the English aristocracy.

Childhood of I. Newton

The boy never saw his father, also named Isaac (Newton Jr. was named after his father — a tribute to memory), he died before he was born.

Three more children later appeared in the family, whom the mother, Anna Ayskow, gave birth to from her second husband. With their appearance, few people were interested in the fate of Isaac: the boy grew up deprived of love, although the family was considered prosperous.

More efforts in the upbringing and care of Newton were made by his uncle William on his mother’s side. The boy’s childhood can hardly be called happy.

Already at an early age, Isaac showed talents as a scientist: he spent a lot of time reading books, he liked to make things. Was reserved and unsociable.

Where Newton studied

In 1655, a 12-year-old teenager was sent to a school in Grantham. During his training, he lived with a local apothecary named Clark.

The educational institution showed abilities in the field of physics, mathematics, astronomy, but Anna’s mother took her son out of school after 4 years.

16-year-old Isaac was supposed to manage the farm, but he didn’t like this alignment: the young man was more attracted to reading books and inventing.

Thanks to his uncle, a schoolteacher Stokes and a teacher from the University of Cambridge, Isaac was reinstated into the ranks of the school’s students to continue his educational activities.

In 1661, the guy enters Trinity College, Cambridge University for free education. In 1664 he takes the exams, which puts him in the status of a student. From that moment on, the young man continues his studies and receives a scholarship. In 1665, he was forced to quit studying due to the closure of the university for quarantine (a plague epidemic).

Around this period, he creates his first inventions. After, in 1667, the young man is restored as a student and continues to gnaw at the granite of science.

A significant role in the addiction to the exact sciences of Isaac Newton is played by his teacher in mathematics, Isaac Barrow.

It is curious that in 1668 the mathematical physicist received a master’s degree and graduated from the university, and almost immediately began to lecture to other students.

What Newton discovered

The scientist’s discoveries are used in educational literature: both in school and university, and in a wide variety of disciplines (mathematics, physics, astronomy).

His main ideas were new for that century:

His most important and significant discoveries were made in the period from 1665 to 1667, during the bubonic plague in London. The University of Cambridge was temporarily closed, the teaching staff disbanded due to the raging infection. The 18-year-old student left for his homeland, where he discovered the law of universal gravitation, and also conducted various experiments with the colors of the spectrum and optics.

Among his discoveries in the field of mathematics are algebraic curves of the 3rd order, binomial expansion and methods for solving differential equations. The differential and integral calculus were developed almost at the same time as Leibniz, independently of each other.

In the field of classical mechanics, he created an axiomatic basis, as well as such a science as dynamics.

It is impossible not to mention the three laws, from where their name «Newton’s laws» came from: the first, second and third.

The foundation was laid for further research in astronomy, including celestial mechanics.

Philosophical significance of Newton’s discoveries

The physicist worked on his discoveries and inventions from both a scientific and a religious point of view.

He noted that he did not write his book «Beginnings» in order to «belittle the Creator», but nevertheless emphasized his power. The scientist believed that the world is «quite independent.»

Was a supporter of «Newtonian philosophy».

Books by Isaac Newton

Newton’s published books during his lifetime:

«Method of differences».

«Enumeration of lines of the third order.»

«Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy».

«Optics, or a treatise on the reflections, refractions, bendings, and colors of light.»

«A New Theory of Light and Colors».

«On the quadrature of curves».

«The movement of bodies in orbit.»

«Universal Arithmetic».

«Analysis using equations with an infinite number of terms.»

Works published after death:

«Chronology of ancient kingdoms» .

«World System».

Flux Method .

Lectures on optics.

Remarks on the Book of the Prophet Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John.

«Short Chronicle».

«A Historical Tracing of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture.»

Newton’s Inventions

He began to take his first steps in invention as a child, as mentioned above.

In 1667, all university teachers were amazed by the telescope he created, which the future scientist invented: it was a breakthrough in the field of optics.

Isaac was knighted by the Royal Society in 1705 for his contributions to science. Now he was called Sir Isaac Newton, he had his own coat of arms and not very reliable pedigree.

Among his inventions are also:

Water clock powered by the rotation of a wooden block, which in turn vibrates from falling drops of water.

Reflector, which was a telescope with a concave lens. The device gave impetus to the study of the night sky. It was also used by sailors for navigation on the high seas.

Windmill.

Scooter.

Personal life of Isaac Newton

According to contemporaries, Newton’s day began and ended with books: he spent so much time with them that he often forgot to even eat.

The famous scientist had no personal life at all. Isaac was never married, according to rumors, he even remained a virgin.

When Sir Isaac Newton died and where is buried

Isaac Newton died March 20 (March 31, 1727 New Style date) in Kensington, UK. Two years before his death, the physicist began to have health problems. He died in his sleep. His grave is in Westminster Abbey.

Interesting facts about Newton

A few not-so-popular facts:

An apple did not fall on Newton’s head — this is a myth invented by Voltaire. But the scientist himself was actually sitting under a tree. Now it is a monument.

As a child, Isaac was very lonely, as he had been all his life. Having lost her father early, the mother focused entirely on a new marriage and three new children, who were quickly left without a father as well.

At the age of 16, his mother took his son out of school, where he began to show extraordinary abilities early, so that he began to manage the farm. A school teacher, an uncle and another acquaintance, a member of Cambridge College, insisted on returning the boy to school, which he successfully graduated from and entered the university.

According to the recollections of classmates and teachers, Isaac spent most of his time reading books, forgetting even to eat and sleep — this was the life he most wanted.

Isaac was Keeper of the British Mint.

After the scientist’s death, his autobiography was published.

Conclusion

The contribution of Sir Isaac Newton to science is really huge, and it is rather difficult to underestimate his contribution.